Philosophy T1

Question 1

Cosmological argument: definitions?

Answer 1

Inductive - an argument constructed on evidence and/or experience that puts forward a possible conclusion
A posteriori - based on actual evidence, observation or experience
Empirically - using knowledge gained through the 5 senses

Question 2

Cosmological argument: by who? Written in what?

Answer 2

Aquinas. 1225-1272

Written in ‘Summa Theologica’

Question 3

Cosmological argument: what is it about?

Answer 3

First way - motion or change. With link to Aristotle. Actuality, efficient cause and potentiality.
Second way - uncaused cause.
Third way - necessary existence. Contingent and non-contingent beings.

Question 4

Cosmological argument: quotes and examples?

Answer 4

“Whatever is in motion is put in motion by another” aquinas
Examples: Aristotle - block of marble, sculpter and sculpture. Aquinas - wood becoming hot.
“If there be no first cause among efficient causes, there will be no ultimate nor any intermediate cause” aquinas
“There must exist something the existence of which is necessary… this all men speak of as God” aquinas

Question 5

The Kalam cosmological argument: definitions?

Answer 5

Inductive - an argument constructed on evidence and/or experience that puts forward a possible conclusion.
A posteriori - based on actual evidence, observation or experience.
Kalam - to argue or discuss

Question 6

The Kalam cosmological argument: where does it originate from? Modernised by who?

Answer 6

Originated from Islamic scholars in the 9th century.

Modernised by Christian apologist William Lane Craig.

Question 7

The Kalam cosmological argument: what is it?

Answer 7

Everything that exists has a cause. The universe exists so has a cause.
Faced with challenges that the universe might be considered infinite.
Defence: an actual infinite cannot exist (however, potential infinites can), a beginningless temporal series of events is an actual infinite, so does not exist.

Question 8

The Kalam cosmological argument: quotes and examples?

Answer 8

Examples: library analogy. Water being frozen.
“The only way to have an eternal cause but a temporal effect would seem to be if the cause is a personal agent who freely chooses to create an effect in time” Craig

Question 9

Teleological argument: definitions?

Answer 9

Inductive - an argument constructed on evident and/or experience that puts forward a possible conclusion.
A posteriori- based on actual evidence, observation or experience.
Telos - end goal or purpose

Question 10

Teleological argument: by who? Written in what?

Answer 10

Aquinas. 1225-1272. Written in ‘summa theologica’

Paley. Written in ‘natural theology’ 1838

Question 11

Teleological argument: what is it about?

Answer 11

Aquinas fifth way - intelligent and unintelligent beings.

Paley’s watch maker analogy and how eyes and teeth are designed perfectly.

Question 12

Teleological argument: quotes and examples?

Answer 12

Example: arrow and archer. Comparison of the stone and watch.
“Some intelligent being exists by whom all natural things are directed to their end; and this being we call God” aquinas
“When we came to inspect the watch we perceive (what we would not discover in the stone) that it’s several parts are framed and put together for a purpose” paley
“Every manifestation of design, which existed in the watch, exists in the works of nature” paley

Question 13

Tennants anthropic and aesthetic argument: definitions?

Answer 13

Inductive - an argument constructed on evidence and/or experience that puts forward a possible conclusion.
A posteriori - based on actual evidence, observation or experience.
Anthropic - related to being human
Aesthetic - related to the concept and appreciation of beauty

Question 14

Tennants anthropic and aesthetic argument: by who? Written in what?

Answer 14

Tennant. Written in ‘Philosophical theology’ 1928.

Question 15

Tennants anthropic and aesthetic argument: what is it about?

Answer 15

Anthropic argument - natural world provides exactly what we need to exist; designed.
Aesthetic argument - humans appreciation of beauty is a sign of an omnibenevolent God.

Question 16

Tennants anthropic and aesthetic argument: quotes?

Answer 16

“God reveals himself in many ways; and some men enter His Temple by the Gate Beautiful” tennant

Question 17

Challenges to the cosmological argument: definitions?

Answer 17

God of classical theism - God that is generally associated with the western monotheistic religions of Christianity, Islam and Judaism.

Fallacy of composition- notion that what is true of the parts is not necessarily true of the whole.

Question 18

Challenges to the cosmological argument: by who?

Answer 18

David Hume. 1711-1776

Question 19

Challenges to the cosmological argument: what are they?

Answer 19

1. Fallacy of composition
2. We cannot talk meaningfully about things we have no experience of.
3. Evidence objection
4. May not be the God of classical theism.

Question 20

Challenges to the cosmological argument: quotes?

Answer 20

‘Just because every human has a mother does not mean the whole of humanity has a mother’ Russel.

Question 21

Challenges to the teleological argument: by who?

Answer 21

David Hume. 1711-1776.

Question 22

Challenges to the teleological argument: what are they?

Answer 22

1. Problems with analogies. Analogies are based on experience, humans have no experience of how the universe was designed, so any analogy will fail.
2. Apparent design. In ‘Dialogues concerning natural religion’ Hume makes distinction between authentic and apparent design. Appearance of design where none actually exists. Epicurean hypothesis.
3. Multiple designers and multiple universes. Not God of classical theism.
4. Absent designer. Not God of classical theism.

Question 23

Challenges to the teleological argument: quotes and examples?

Answer 23

Example: comparison with ship builder. Example of house and builder.

“Surely you will not affirm, that the universe bears such a resemblance to a house, that we can with the same certainty infer a similar cause, or that the analogy is here entire or perfect’ Hume.

Question 24

Modern scientific criticisms to the cosmological argument?

Answer 24

Big Bang Theory. ‘Proof’ a random action caused the beginning of the universe, not God.
‘The Big Bang was an inevitable consequence of the laws of physics, it is not necessary to create a God’ Stephen hawking

Question 25

Modern scientific criticisms to the teleological argument?

Answer 25

Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. In ‘origin of species’ 1957 Darwin noted it was random chance that organises life in the universe, through evolution and natural selection. The reason for species being so well suited to their environment is due to their ability to adapt to their surroundings and pass on favourable characteristics.

Question 26

Ontological argument: definitions?

Answer 26

Deductive proof - a proof in which if the premises are true then the conclusion must be true.
A priori - without prior evidence or experience, based on pure reason/ logic.
Premise - a statement or proposition used to construct an argument.

Question 27

Ontological argument: by who?

Answer 27

Anslem. 1033-1109.

Question 28

Ontological argument: what is it about?

Answer 28

God as the greatest possible being - proslogion two. Premise one: beings exist in both mind and reality. Premise two: God is the greatest being that can be thought of. Conclusion: God must exist in both mind and reality.
God has necessary existence - proslogion three

Question 29

Ontological argument: quotes and examples?

Answer 29

Examples: painter and a painting. Anselms fool.

“A being than which nothing greater can be conceived” anselm
“God cannot be conceived not to exist” anslem

Question 30

Development of the ontological argument, Descartes - concept of God as supremely perfect being: definitions?

Answer 30

Deductive proof - a proof in which if the premises are true then the conclusion must be true.
A priori - without prior evidence or experience, based on pure reason or logic.
Attribute - a descriptive characteristic that someone or something possesses.

Question 31

Developments of the ontological argument, Descartes - God as a supremely perfect being: by who?

Answer 31

Descartes. 1598-1650.

Question 32

Development of the ontological argument, Descartes - God as a supremely perfect being: what is it about?

Answer 32

We’re god to not possess the perfection of every possible attribute, then he would not be a supremely perfect being. Existence as an attribute.
The idea of a triangle.
Mountains and valleys. God necessarily exists.

Question 33

Development of the ontological argument, Descartes - God as a supremely perfect being: quotes?

Answer 33

“I cannot conceive a mountain without a valley… they cannot in any way be separated from one another. While from the fact that I cannot conceive God without existence, it follows that existence is inseparable from him, and hence that he really exists” Descartes

Question 34

Development of the ontological argument, Malcolm - God as an unlimited being: definitions?

Answer 34

Deductive proof - a proof in which if the premises are true then the conclusion must be true.
A priori - without prior evidence or experience. Based on pure reason or logic.

Question 35

Development of the ontological argument, Malcolm - God as an unlimited being: by who? Written in what?

Answer 35

Malcolm. Written in ‘the philosophical review’ 1960.

Question 36

Development of the ontological argument, Malcolm - God as an unlimited being: what is it about?

Answer 36

Malcolm rejects Anslems proslogion two and Descartes argument.
Agrees with anslems proslogion three. God is the greatest possible being so he has necessary existence.
God is an unlimited being.

Question 37

Development of the ontological argument, Malcolm - God as a supremely perfect being: quotes?

Answer 37

“What anslem did was to give a demonstration that the proposition ‘God necessarily exists’ is entailed by the proposition ‘God is a being greater than which cannot be conceived’ which is equivalent to ‘God is an absolutely unlimited being” Malcolm

“If god, a being greater than which cannot be conceived, does not exist then he cannot come into existence, for if he did… he would be a limited being. He cannot come into existence, nor can he cease to exist. So if God exists his existence is necessary” Malcolm.

Question 38

Challenges to the ontological argument - Gaunilos response to anslem: definitions?

Answer 38

Reductio ad absurdum - an argument that shows a statement to be absurd if it’s logical conclusions were to be accepted.
Intrinsic maximum - a term used to refer to the necessary properties of God.

Question 39

Challenges to the ontological argument - Gaunilos response to anslem: who by? Written in what?

Answer 39

Gaunilo of Marmoutier.

Written in ‘On behalf of the fool’

Question 40

Challenges to the ontological argument - Gaunilos response to anslem: what is it?

Answer 40

Perfect island - because of the idea it must exist.
Just because you can define a greatest possible being does not automatically lead to the fact that one actually exists.

Critics suggest Gaunilo misunderstood the ontological argument. God is non-contingent and the source of his own being. Gaunilos island is a contingent thing and possesses no intrinsic maximum, as you can always add something else to improve it. This is not true of the concept of a non-contingent God - Gods perfection is a necessary part of him.

Question 41

Challenges to the ontological argument - Gaunilos response to anslem: quote?

Answer 41

“If a man should try to prove to me by such reasoning that this island truly exists, and that it’s existence should no longer be doubted, either I should believe that he was jesting, or I know not which I ought to regard the greater fool: myself or him” Gaunilo.

Question 42

Challenges to the ontological argument - Kants response to Descartes: definitions?

Answer 42

Predicate - a defining characteristic or attribute.

Question 43

Challenges to the ontological argument - Kants response to Descartes: by who?

Answer 43

Kant. 18th century.

Question 44

Challenges to the ontological argument - Kants response to Descartes: what is it?

Answer 44

Inaccurate to describe existence as a perfection. Existence cannot be a predicate as it does not describe anything about the nature of an object.
E.g. ‘God exists’ says nothing about his nature, but saying God is omnipotent or omniscient does.

Question 45

Challenges to the ontological argument - Kants response to Descartes: example?

Answer 45

Example: 100 Thalers (currency used in 18th century Prussia). He asked the reader what difference is made in the understanding of thalers by adding the phrase ‘it exists’ to the list of other predicates. As nothing changed in our minds, then it shows how existence is not a real predicate.