Philosophy of psychology, What & Why of Psychobiology AND The Nervous System (Overall Structure)

Question 1

Define: ‘Psychology’

Answer 1

The study of the mind/soul

Question 2

Define: Materialist approach to psyche

Answer 2

‘mind’ is what brains ‘do’ (verb not a noun)
e,g., “'’walk’ is what legs ‘do’”

Question 3

Has psychology adopted the dualist or materialist approach?

Answer 3

Materialist (mostly)
-psychology is the study of the human brain, thus the study of human behaviour

Question 3

Define: Dualist approach to psyche

Answer 3

Mind is different and separate from matter
e.g., “where in the brain is the mind?”

Question 4

Define: ‘Behaviour’

Answer 4

Behaviour is ‘an organisms internally coordinated response to its internal or external environment’

Question 5

What does Psychobiology aim to do?

Answer 5

Understand the biological basis of (human) behaviour

Question 6

Which (3) systems interact with the environment to produce a response?

Answer 6

1) Immune system
2) Endocrine system
3) Nervous system

Question 7

How does the immune system interact with the environment to produce a response?

Answer 7

Protects the body from infection by fighting bacteria, viruses, etc

Question 8

How does the endocrine system interact with the environment to produce a response?

Answer 8

Maintains and regulates body’s internal state; controls growth, development and reproduction

Question 9

How does the nervous system interact with the environment to produce a response?

Answer 9

Controls ongoing activity by coordinating rapid and precise responses to stimuli; biological basis of all ‘cognitive’ functions

Question 10

Explain: wrong assumption that compares to biopsychology to social psychology?

Answer 10

Assumption that bio psychology studies the ‘why’ and ‘what’ of human behaviour (like social psychology), explained in genes & hormones.
Actually studies ‘how’ of human behaviour (not ‘why’ or ‘what’

Question 11

How is our present-day study of the ‘mind’ and ‘behaviour’ informed by our understanding of (neuro)biology?

Answer 11

No psychological theory/concept can violate biological (physical) principles:

-Theories of reincarnation aren’t psychological theories
-Theories about belief in reincarnation are psychological theories

No psychological research question can be outside a biological framework:

-Research into life after death is not psychological research
-Research into ‘near death experience’ is psychological research

Question 12

Define & Explain: Nervous System

Answer 12

A network of electro-chemically active cells (‘neurons’) specialised to communicate with each other

When cells communicate a chemical change in one cell, it causes a corresponding change in the other

The neuron which sends the signal is known as ‘active’, if the signal is strong enough then the second cell becomes active, and so on

Question 13

Explain: Simplest form of nervous system

Answer 13

UNcentralised nervous system (e.g., hydra, starfish)
No ‘nerve centre’ that controls:
-Activity of groups of other neurons
-Actions of distant body parts

Question 14

What is the direction of a neuron’s signals?

Answer 14

Direction of signal transfer: From the dendrites, down the axon, to the axon terminals

Question 15

Define & Explain the role of: Neurons

Answer 15

A neuron = a nerve cell
They fire nerve impulses. They do this by releasing neurotransmitters, also known as the body’s chemical messengers. These chemicals carry signals to other cells.

Question 16

What is the only animal without a nervous system?

Answer 16

A sponge (they are animals that behave like plants)

Question 17

Describe: Nervous systems in structurally simple animals

Answer 17

Even structurally simple animals have centralised nervous systems (e.g., flatworm, leech, insect)
With:
-separate CNS (proto-brain & nerve cord)
-parietal nervous system

Question 18

Describe: Nervous systems in vertebrates

Answer 18

Similar to structurally simple animals but more complex:
-structural: central & peripheral NS more clearly separated
-functional: more hierarchically organised with brain specialised to organise & direct communication

Question 19

What makes up the Central Nervous System?

Answer 19

Brain —> Central nervous system –> Spinal cord

Question 20

What makes up the Peripheral Nervous System?

Answer 20

Somatic & Autonomic nervous system

Question 21

What makes up the Autonomic Nervous System?

Answer 21

Sympathetic & Parasympathetic nervous system

Question 22

What is the role of the Sympathetic system?

Answer 22

Prepare the body for ‘Fight or flight’ during stressful situations
Effects: increases heart rate, dilates pupils, inhibits digestion, releases adrenaline

Question 23

What is the role of the Parasympathetic nervous system?

Answer 23

Promotes ‘Rest and maintenance/digest’ activities that occur when the body is at rest
Effects: decreases heart rate, constricts pupils, stimulates digestion, conserves energy

Question 24

Where is the CNS?

Answer 24

Encased in bonesps

Question 25

Explain: Function of the Somatic nervous system?

Answer 25

Controls voluntary movements & transmits sensory information to the CNS

Question 26

Explain: Function of the Autonomic nervous system?

Answer 26

Controls involuntary bodily functions: heartbeat, digestion, respiration, etc through sympathetic & parasympathetic systems

Question 27

Explain: (2) Components of Somatic Nervous system

Answer 27

Motor Neurons Sensory Neurons

Question 28

What do Motor neurons do?

Answer 28

Send signals from CNS to muscles to induce movement

Question 29

What do Sensory neurons do?

Answer 29

Send signals from sensory organs to CNS

Question 30

Describe: What systems make up the Peripheral nervous system?

Answer 30

Somatic NS & Autonomic NS

Question 31

Describe: What is the function of the Central Nervous System?

Answer 31

CNS acts a 'control centre' for entire nervous system. It: -Integrates -Coordinates -Controls -Cognition -Emotion

Question 32

Explain: How does the CNS integrate information?

Answer 32

Processes sensory information and makes decisions based on that information

Question 33

Explain: What does the CNS coordinate?

Answer 33

Coordinates all voluntary & involuntary movements

Question 34

Explain: How does the CNS control the body?

Answer 34

Regulates bodily functions and maintains homeostasis

Question 35

Explain: How does the CNS support cognition?

Answer 35

Supports cognitive functions such as thinking, memory, and learning

Question 36

Explain: How is the CNS relevant in emotions?

Answer 36

It generates & processes information

Question 37

Define: 'White Matter'

Answer 37

Axons of neurons wrapped in myelin sheath (myelinated neurons)

Question 38

Define: 'Grey Matter'

Answer 38

Tightly densely packed cell bodies

Question 39

What are the two (2) behaviours that can be performed by just 2 neurons in spinal cord (no brain)?

Answer 39

1) Spinal cord & links between PNS & CNS 2) Monosynaptic reflex arc (e.g., knee-jerk reflex)

Question 40

Explain: How the brain isn't needed for links between the PNS & CNS

Answer 40

Sensory signals from body (except) head enter CNS via spinal cord Motor signals to body leave CNS via spinal cord

Question 41

Explain: How the process of for monosynaptic reflex arc (how the brain isn't needed)

Answer 41

Inside each muscle fibre, specific sense organs/receptors (muscle spindles) activate a sensory neuron when a muscle is quickly stretched Axons enter spinal cord (via dorsal root), connecting directly with Motor neurons, which send their axons out (via ventral root) Activating the same muscle (effector) from which signals originated (causing it to contract)

Question 42

Explain: Polysynaptic reflex arc process

Answer 42

Doesn't require brain -Sensory and motor neurons connected via one or more interneurons Sensor and effector in different locations (e.g., withdrawal reflex) More flexible arrangement, can sometimes even show simple forms of learning (e.g., shown in aplysia)

Question 43

Explain: How spinal cord nuerons can learn without a brain to help paralysed cats walk

Answer 43

Spinal cord neurons generate complex movement patterns (e.g., walking, new born stepping reflex) but cannot voluntary initiate movements. Patterns can only be elicited in response to appropriate stimulation e.g., paralysed cats can walk again with sufficient training (like if stimulated by a treadmill) and the legs of cat can learn to support weight again

Question 44

Explain: How do monosynaptic reflexes enable stable movement?

Answer 44

Through the body, monosynaptic reflexes work to ‘resist’ or ‘dampen’ quick stretching of skeletal muscles, enabling smooth, stable movement;

Question 45

Define: 'Synapse'

Answer 45

Synapse = signalling link between a neuron and another cell (e.g., another neuron)

Question 46

Explain: How do Synaptic connections work? (Incl. Monosynaptic & Polysynaptic)

Answer 46

Structural (i.e., physical): the place where the specialised ‘sender’ part of a neuron comes close the specialised ‘receptor’ part of the target cell Two neurons typically share many of these places, i.e., they have many synapses: Functional (i.e., more abstract): no matter how many such ‘contact points’ are between two neurons, they all contribute to the same signal That is, they function as one synapse: Monosynaptic: functionally, only one synapse linking sensory & motor neuron Polysynaptic: functionally, several synapses between sensory & motor neuron

Question 47

Define: Different types of polysynapses

Answer 47

1) Bi-synaptic (2 synapses) 2) Tri-synaptic (3 synapses)

Question 48

Explain: Central Pattern Generators (and paralysed cat experiment)

Answer 48

CPGs are neural circuits located in the spinal cord and brainstem that produce rhythmic patterns of motor activity (involuntary), such as walking, breathing, etc., without needing sensory feedback or conscious control. These circuits can generate rhythmic outputs even in the absence of sensory inputs, providing the basic timing and coordination for repetitive motor behaviours. Cat experiment: rhythmic motor signals that stimulate the muscles required for walking, even in the absence of brain input. When the treadmill moves, sensory feedback from the legs can activate the CPGs in the spinal cord, initiating the walking pattern. This allows the cat to produce coordinated stepping movements, despite paralysis.

Question 49

Define: Learning in terms of synaptic connections

Answer 49

Learning = modifying links between inputs & responses (link back to what nervous system is trying to achieve)

Question 50

Explain: Paralysed treadmill cat experiment: What does it tell us/What can we learn from it?

Answer 50

Told us: the spinal cord contains the necessary circuitry to generate basic walking patterns independently of the brain. Significance: CPGs; provided evidence for existence of CPGs in the spinal cord, which can produce rhythmic motor patterns like walking. (Good for rehabilitation and therapy after paralysis etc)