Philosophy Exam 2 - Logical Fallacies and Types of Arguments Flashcards
1
Q
Deduction and Induction mean the same as.
A
Necessity vs. Probability
2
Q
Deductive Arguments
A
it is impossible for the conclusion to be false if the premises are true; True Premises = True Conclusion (Cannot be False)
3
Q
Inductive Arguments
A
It is improbable that the conclusion is false if the premises are true; True Premises = Probably True Conclusion (Probably not False)
4
Q
All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal. Deductive or Inductive?
A
Deductive
5
Q
Common _______ Argument: Based on Mathematics
A
Deductive Argument;
Since X + Y = 10,
and X = 7,
it follows that Y = 3.
NOT STATISTICS
6
Q
Common ________ Argument: From Definition
A
Deductive Argument;
Because Claudia is mendacious, it follows that she tells lies.
7
Q
Common ________ Argument: Categorical
A
Deductive Argument;
All flowers are plants.
All Daises are flowers.
Therefore, all daises are plants.
8
Q
Common ________ Argument: Hypothetical
A
Deductive Argument;
If inflation heats up, then interest rates will rise. If interest rates rise, then bond prices will decline. Therefore, if inflation heats up, then bond prices will decline.
9
Q
Common ________ Argument: Disjunctive Syllogisms
A
Deductive Argument;
Either global warming will be arrested, or huricanes will become more intense.
Global warming will not be arrested.
Therefore, hurricans will become more intense.
10
Q
The sun has risen everyday for the last 2,000 years.
Therefore, probably, the sun will rise tomorrow.
Deductive or Inductive?
A
Inductive
11
Q
Common _______ Argument: Prediction
A
Inductive Argument;
I have always seen sunflowers bloom in summer in this valley.
Therefore, I will see sunflowers bloom in this valley next summer.
12
Q
Common _______ Argument: Analogy
A
Inductive Argument;
Because Christina’s porshe is a great handeling car, it follows that Angela’s porshe must also be a great-handeling car.
13
Q
Common _______ Argument: From Authority
A
Inductive Argument;
Isaac Newton was a great scientist and an alchemist, so we should take the discipline of alchemy seriously.
14
Q
Common _______ Argument: Based On Signs
A
Inductive Argument;
The Broadway marquee says that “Phantom of the Opera” is playing nightly. Therefore, itmust be the case that “Phantom” is playing there tonight.
15
Q
Common _______ Argument: Causal Inference
A
Inductive Argument;
From the knowledge that a bottle of wine had been accidentally left in the freezer overnight, someone might conclude that it had been frozen.
16
Q
Valid/Invalid Arguments only apply to:
A
Deductive Arguments
17
Q
Strong/Weak Arguments only apply to:
A
Inductive Arguments
18
Q
Sound/Unsound Arguments only apply to:
A
Deductive Arguments
19
Q
Cogent/Uncogent Arguments only apply to:
A
Inductive Arguments
20
Q
Valid Argument
A
IMPOSSIBLE for conclusion to be false if premises are true (Deductive)
21
Q
Invalid Argument
A
IS POSSIBLE for conclusion to be false if premesis are true (Deductive)
22
Q
Soundness of an Argument
A
Validity + All true premises
23
Q
To test for validity…
A
Assume all premises are true. From that assumption, find out whether the conclusion is also true.
24
Q
Strong Argument
A
IMPROBABLE for conclusion to be false if premises are true (Inductive)
25
Weak Argument
Conclusion does not follow PROBABLY from the premises, despite claiming it does (Inductive)
26
Cogentcy of an argument
Strong + All true premises
27
To test for strength...
Assume all premises are true. From that assumption, find out whether the conclusion is also probably true.
28
(D or I?)
This marble from the bag is black. Another marble from the bag is black.
A third marble from the bag is black. Therefore all the marbles in the bag are black.
Inductive, Weak, Uncogent
29
(D or I?)
All men are mortal.
Joe is a man.
Therefore Joe is mortal.
Deductive, Valid, Sound
30
(D or I?)
Mr. Hill is a jackass.
All jackasses have long ears. Therefore, Mr. Hill has long ears.
Deductive, INVALID (because of logical fallacy EQUIVOCATION), Unsound. It would be VALID if the word 'Jackass' was meant the same way in both premises
31
(D or I?)
All dogs have four legs.
All dogs are animals.
Therefore all animals have four legs
Deductive, Invalid, Unsound
32
(D or I?)
All dogs are animals.
Rover is a dog.
Therefore Rover is an animal.
Deductive, Valid, Sound
33
(D or I?)
Daffy Duck is a duck.
All ducks are mammals.
Therefore, Daffy Duck is a mammal.
Deductive, Valid, Unsound
34
(D or I?)
Most birds can fly.
Tweety is a bird.
Therefore, Tweety can probably fly.
Inductive, Strong, Cogent
35
(D or I?)
All meteorites found to this day have contained salt.
Therefore, probably the next meteorite to be found will contain salt.
Inductive, Strong, Uncogent
36
Modus Ponens
If P then Q.
P.
Therefore, Q.
Valid.
37
Modus Tollens
If P, then Q.
Not Q.
Therefore, not P.
Valid.
38
Affirming the Consequent
If P then Q.
Q.
Therefore, P.
Invalid
39
Fallacy
A mistake in reasoning; a defect in an
argument that consists of something other than merely false premises.
40
Formal Fallacy
A fallacy identified by merely examining the form or structure of an
argument (Affirming the Consequent: If P then Q, Q, Therefore P).
41
Informal Fallacy
A fallacy that can only be identified by examining the content of the argument.
42
Fallacies of Relevence
Arguments where premises
are logically irrelevant to the
conclusion, but the premises
may appear to be psychologically relevant, so the conclusion may seem to follow. Appeal to Force, Pity, and People (ad Populum).
43
Appeal to Force
An arguer poses a conclusion to another person and tells that person either implicitly or explicitly that some harm will come to him if he does not accept the conclusion.
44
F:
Jordan: Dad, why do I have to spend my summer at Jesus camp?
Dad: Because if you don’t, you will spend your entire summer in your room with nothing but your Bible!
Appeal to Force (Fallacy of Relevence)
45
Appeal to Pity
The arguer attempts to support a conclusion merely by evoking pity from the reader or listener.
46
F:
You need to pass me in this course, since I'll lose my scholarship if you don't.
Appeal to Pity (Fallacy of Relevance)
47
Appeal to the People (ad Populum)/Bandwagon
A speaker uses desires like being loved, esteemed, admired, valued, recognized, and/or accepted by others to get the reader of listener to accept a conclusion.
48
F:
Twilight must be a great book because everybody seems to have read it.
Appeal to the People (Fallacy of Relevance)
49
Ad Hominem
The claim that the speaker is certain kind of person is the reason for thinking the argument is bad (or should be dismissed).
50
Three types of Ad Hominems:
Abusive - the second person responds to the first person’s argument by verbally abusing the first person.
Circumstancial - the opponent hopes to discredit the speaker’s argument by alluding to certain circumstances that affect the speaker.
"You too" - the opponent attempts to make the speaker appear hypocritical, or as arguing in bad faith. This is usually done by citing features of the speaker’s life that conflict with the speaker’s conclusion.
51
F:
Tony wants us to believe that the origin of life was an “accident”. Tony is a godless SOB who has spent more time in jail than in church, so the only information we should consider from him is the best way to make license plates.
Ad Hominem (Abusive)
52
F:
Of course, your minister says he believes in God. He would be unemployed otherwise.
Ad Hominem (Circumstancial)
53
F:
My philosophy teacher has argued
that smoking is very bad for you
health and that in the interest of my
own health I should quit. But then I
saw him having a cigar outside of
Johnson City’s most elegant cocktail
lounge. You can’t believe anything
someone like that says
Ad Hominem (You Too)
54
F:
John Mark has said Ghost Energy Drink is the best and helps him
maintain a solid competitive
edge. But Mark is paid millions of dollars to endorse that product, so we shouldn’t take his claim too
seriously.
No fallacy; Similar to Ad Hominem, but Mark didn't present an argument. ONLY A FALLACY IF THE PERSON HAS GIVEN AN ARGUMENT IN FAVOR OF A CLAIM.
55
Accident
A general rule is applied to a case it was not intended to cover.
56
F:
The U.S. is a true democracy; therefore, children and criminals should be allowed to vote.
Accident
57
F:
Thou shalt not kill; therefore, you should not fight for your country or control weeds in your garden.
Accident
58
Straw Man
An argument is distorted in order to more easily dismantle it
59
F:
A Democrat politician says he wants to spend more money on the social safety net. Communists wanted a social safety net, so are you advocating for communism?
Straw Man
60
Wife: I'd rather have a dog than a cat.
Husband: So you hate cats?
Straw Man
61
F:
There are parents out there who have argued that we should not allow teachers the right to corporeally punish elementary school children. These people believe children should never be disciplined and should be allowed to do whatever they like.
Straw Man
62
Missing the Point
The premises of an argument support one particular conclusion, but then a different conclusion, often one vaguely related to the correct conclusion, is drawn
63
F:
Abuse of the welfare system is rampant nowadays. Our only alternative is to abolish the system altogether.
Missing the Point
64
F:
Christianity is the only true religion: It has clearly been of great help to many people.
Missing the Point
65
F:
There has been an increase in burglary in the area. It must be because there are more people moving into the area.
Missing the Point
66
Red Herring
The arguer diverts the attention of the reader or listener by changing the subject to a different, and sometimes subtly related, one. VERY similar to Missing the Point.
67
F:
Why are you pulling me over for speeding? Shouldn’t you be out catching the real criminals? Someone could be robbing a bank as we speak!
Red Herring
68
F:
While you may have concerns about my votes about the environment, I can assure you that I am an open-minded individual. What we should really discuss is my record on votes that expanded educational opportunities for all children.
Red Herring
69
F:
Sure, South Carolina is quite a distance from Maryland, but it is better for our business model. And, really, who doesn't like warmer weather? The weather will definitely be a plus.
Red Herring
70
Appeal to Unqualified Authority
The cited authority in an argument lacks the appropriate authority or expertise.
71
F:
Stephen Hawking, one of the leading physicists of his generation, claims that the universe is between 13 to 14 billion years old. Therefore, the universe is probably that old
No Fallacy
72
F:
My favorite actor, who starred in that movie about a virus that turns people into zombies, said in an interview that genetically modified crops caused COVID-19. So I think that’s what really happened.
Appeal to Unqualified Authority
73
F:
I read an article online written by a high-ranking army officer who claims that there is evidence of aliens visiting Earth. However, the officer wishes to remain anonymous. Aliens do exist!
Appeal to Unqualified Authority
74
F:
Selectively citing the 1% of climate scientists who disagree with the evidence on human-induced global warming and ignoring the other 99%.
Appeal to Unqualified Authority
75
Appeal to Ignorance
The premises of an argument states that nothing has been proved one way or the other about some issue, and then the conclusion makes a definite assumption about that issue.
76
F:
Masha's doing a great job as team captain since nobody complained about her.
Appeal to Ignorance
77
F:
There's no way to prove the lost city of Atlantis didn't exist, which is a reason to believe it could have existed.
Appeal to Ignorance
78
F:
Since there is no evidence of the man's innocence, he must be guilty.
Appeal to Ignorance
79
Hasty Generalization
there is a reasonable likelihood that
the sample is not representative of
the group by being either too small
or not randomly selected.
80
F:
I've met three redheads and they were all mean, so all redheads are mean.
Hasty Generalization
81
F:
I always wait until the last minute to complete my assignments, and I'm still passing all my classes. Therefore, there's nothing wrong with procrastinating and putting off your assignments.
Hasty Generalization
82
F:
Spotted lanternflies are an invasive species, so flies with spots must be invasive.
Hasty Generalization
83
False Cause
The link between premises
and conclusion depends on some
causal connection that probably does
not exist, or has not yet been
established.
84
F:
Every time I bring my umbrella with me, it rains. Clearly, if I leave it at home, there will be sunshine!
False Cause
85
F:
Every time I buy a good seat for a game, my team wins. Everytime I buy a cheap seat, they lose. I better get a good seat for the next game if I want to see my team win the championship
False Cause
86
F:
Ever since I started wearing this crystal necklace, I’ve been extremely lucky. I’ve even aced all my exams. This necklace is my lucky charm.
False Cause
87
Slippery Slope
The conclusion of the argument rests on an alleged chain reaction and there is not sufficient reason to believe that the causal chain reaction will actually take place. Similar to False Cause.
88
F:
This week it's Robert E. Lee. I notice that Stonewall Jackson's coming down. I wonder; is it George Washington next week, and is it Thomas Jefferson the week after? You know, you really do have to ask yourself, where does it stop? There will be no more of our great national heritage left!
Slippery Slope
89
F:
The farmers of our state have asked that we introduce legislation to provide subsidies for soybeans. Unfortunately, we will have to turn down their request. If we give subsidies to the soybean farmers, then the corn and wheat growers will ask for the same thing. Then it will be the cotton growers, citrus growers, truck farmers, and cattle raisers. In the end, the cost will be astronomical.
Slippery Slope
90
F:
If students are required to wear uniforms to school, they'll do less shopping at local clothing stores. With less business, the stores will close, which will hurt our local economy.
Slippery Slope
91
Weak Analogy
The analogy is not strong enough to support the conclusion. "Similarly."
92
F:
Bill’s new car is bright blue, has leather upholstery, and gets excellent gas mileage. Ted’s new car is also bright blue and has leather upholstery. Therefore, it too will probably get excellent gas mileage.
Weak Analogy
93
F:
Raising a child is like growing a tree. Sometimes violent things, such as cutting off branches, have to be done to force the tree to grow straight. Similarly, corporal punishment must sometimes be inflicted no children to force them to develop properly.
Weak Analogy
94
F:
When a car breaks down so often that repairs become pointless, the car is thrown on the junk heap. Similarly, when a person becomes old and diseased, he or she should be mercifully put to death.
Weak Analogy
95
Begging the Question
The premises include the claim that the conclusion is true or (directly or indirectly) assume that the conclusion is true. Fallacious because simply assuming that the conclusion is true in the premises does not constitute evidence for that conclusion. Obviously, simply assuming a claim is true does not serve as evidence for that claim.
96
X is true. The evidence for this claim is that X is true. Is an example of what fallacy?
Begging the Question
97
F:
Stealing is wrong because you should not take things from people when they do not belong to you.
Begging the Question
98
F:
Criminals are basically stupid because anyone who isn't basically stupid wouldn't be a criminal.
Begging the Question
99
F:
This is an Aspen Tree. You can tell that it's an Aspen because of the way that it is.
Begging the Question
100
Complex Question
Two (or more) questions are asked in the guise of a single question and a single answer is then given to both of them.
101
F:
Have you stopped beating your wife?
Complex Question
102
F:
Paul, it was great to see you at the party the other night. Everyone there was doing crack. Incidentally, how long have you been dealing that stuff?
Complex Question
103
F:
Are you in favor of the ruinous economic policy of the Democratic Platform Committee?
Complex Question
104
False Dichotomy
The arguer presents a disjunctive (“either ... or...”) premise with two unlikely alternatives as if they were the only two available, and then the arguer eliminates the undesirable alternative, leaving the arguer’s desired alternative as the conclusion.
105
F:
Either you buy me a new Patagonia puffy jacket, or I’ll freeze to death this winter. You surely don’t want me to freeze to death, so...
False Dichotomy
106
F:
Either we have prayer in our public schools, or the moral fabric of society will disintegrate. The choice should be obvious
False Dichotomy
107
F:
Either you buy me a new BMW, or I won't be able to get back and forth to school. I know you want me to go to school, so the choice is clear.
False Dichotomy
108
F:
Each and every brick in the completely brick-faced Wainright Building has a reddish-brown color. Therefore, the Wainright Building has a reddish-brown color.
No Fallacy
109
Suppressed Evidence
Evidence was deliberately left out of the argument that would outweigh the presented evidence.
110
F:
Recent studies have shown that conventional food has the same vitamins, minerals, proteins, and other nutrients as organic food. Therefore, it’s just as good to eat conventional food as organic food.
Suppressed Evidence
111
F:
Most dogs are friendly and pose no threat to people who pet them. Therefore, it would be safe to pet the little dog that is approaching us now.
Suppressed Evidence
112
F:
If you look at our money, you will find the words "In God We Trust." This proves that ours is a Christian Nation and that our government accepts that we are a Christian people.
Suppressed Evidence
113
Equivocation
The conclusion of an argument depends on the fact that a word or phrase is used, either explicitly or implicitly, in two different senses in the argument.
114
F:
A mouse is an animal. Therefore, a
large mouse is a large animal.
Equivocation
115
F:
A crust of bread is better than nothing. Nothing is better than true love. Therefore, a crust of bread is better than true love
Equivocation
116
F:
Some triangles are obtuse.
Whatever is obtuse is ignorant.
Therefore, some triangles are ignorant.
Equivocation
117
Amphiboly
The arguer interprets an ambiguous statement and then draws a conclusion based on this faulty interpretation.
118
F:
Professor Johnson said that he will give a lecture about heart failure in the biology lecture hall. It must be the case that a number of heart failures have occurred there.
Amphiboly
119
F:
Mr. Wilson said that on July 4, he went out on the veranda and watched the fireworks go up in his pajamas. We conclude that Mr. Wilson must have had an exciting evening.
Amphiboly
120
F:
The governor says, 'Save soap and waste paper.' So soap is more valuable than paper.
Amphiboly
121
Composition
The conclusion of an argument depends on the erroneous transference of an attribute from the parts of something onto the whole. Because PARTS have a property, the WHOLE must have that property. INVERSE OF DIVISION
122
F:
Each player on this basketball
team is excellent. Therefore, this is
an excellent basketball team.
Composition
123
F:
Every member of the Delta Club is over seventy years old. Therefore, the Delta Club must be over seventy years old.
Composition
124
F:
The twenty-story Carson Building is constructed of concrete blocks. Each and every concrete block in the structure can withstand an earthquake of 9.5 on the Richter scale. Therefore, the building can withstand an earthquake of 9.5 on the Richter scale.
Composition
125
Division
The conclusion of an argument depends on the erroneous transference of an attribute from the whole of something onto the parts. Because the WHOLE has a property, the PARTS must have that property. INVERSE OF COMPOSITION.
126
F:
Salt is a nonpoisonous substance. Therefore, its component elements must be nonpoisonous as well.
Division
127
F:
The students attending Bradford College come from every one of the fifty states. Michele attends Bradford College. Therefore, Michele comes from every one of the fifty states.
Division
128
F:
Giant pandas are rapidly disappearing. This animal is a giant panda. Therefore, this animal should disappear any minute now.
Division
