Philosophy Exam

Question 1

What are the 7 theories of reality?

Answer 1

Myths
Naturalism
Forms
Taoism/Daoism
Idealism
Materialism
Dualism

Question 2

What are myths?

Answer 2

Myths are stories people used to explain the world around them.
They were passed down by word of mouth and often changed over time.
Some cultures, like the Navajo, use these stories to help heal sick people, almost like a magic spell.
Even today, old myths from Greece and Rome inspire many books, movies, and artworks.

Question 3

Example of myths?

Answer 3

Thor
Before science, people used stories about gods to explain natural events.
Thor, a god in Norse mythology, was said to control thunder and lightning with his hammer.
People thought thunderstorms were Thor fighting in the sky, with lightning as his hammer strikes.
They believed Thor’s storms brought rain for their crops, so they thanked him for good weather.
Thor’s story helped them understand thunderstorms and rain before they knew about science.

Question 4

What is naturalism?

Answer 4

Naturalism is the belief that everything in the world is part of nature and follows natural laws.
It means trusting in science, not in supernatural things like ghosts or magic.
It also means seeing humans as animals that follow the same natural rules.
Naturalists marvel at how everything in nature works together, like how plants grow or how planets move.
Everything in our world is made of physical substances we can touch and see.

Question 5

What did philosophers say about naturalism?

Answer 5

Thales
Thales believed the universe was made of different forms of water.
He accurately predicted a solar eclipse using observations and math.
Protagoras
Protagoras thought knowledge didn’t need divine prophets or sacred texts.
He believed in critical thinking and rational argument, known as dialectic.
He introduced “agnosticism,” the idea of not believing in gods without evidence.
Socrates
Socrates questioned whether human values depend on the gods.
If values exist independently of gods, then gods are not their source.
If values depend on gods, it would mean (a) actions like murder could be good if gods said so, and (b) our duty to obey gods isn’t easily explained.
He explored if human goodness is tied to supernatural decrees.

Question 6

What are forms?

Answer 6

Abstract Nature: Forms are abstract concepts that contain the perfect ideal of what they represent.
Shadows in the Physical World: In our physical world, we perceive imperfect copies, or “shadows,” of these forms.
Non-Physical Existence: Forms don’t exist in our physical world; we can’t directly interact with them.
Imitation in Physical Objects: We recognize forms by seeing their imperfect imitations in physical objects.
Blueprints of Perfection: Each form is like a perfect blueprint of what it represents, such as “appleness” or “goodness.”
Essences: Forms are the essence or pure ideal of things.
Eternal Existence: Forms would still exist even if their physical copies disappeared.
Beyond Physical Traits: Forms aren’t limited to physical characteristics; they can represent concepts like humans, regardless of individual differences.
Human Form: What makes you human is that you partake in the perfect, timeless form of “human.”

Question 7

What did philosophers say about forms?

Answer 7

Parmenides
Oneness and No Change: Parmenides believed in a world of oneness where change is impossible.
Plato
Order and Structure: Plato argued that the world shows order and structure, not random confusion.
Perfect Sphere: He used the example of a perfect sphere, which exists as an ideal form and remains unchanged, no matter what happens to physical spheres.
Forms as Ideals: All round things in our world are imperfect copies of the perfect form of a sphere.
Immunity to Change: The perfect sphere and other forms are not affected by changes in the physical world.
Forms of Various Concepts: There are forms for concepts like courage, beauty, and even broader categories like “animal” or “being.”
Good as the Source: The form of the good is the source of reality and understanding but is beyond existence and isn’t an entity.

Question 8

Forms example?

Answer 8

World of Shadows (Cookie Cutter Analogy)
Physical World as Shadows: Our world is like seeing shadows or cookie cutter shapes of perfect forms.
Perfect Rock Analogy: Just as there is a perfect rock form, all physical rocks are imperfect copies of this ideal.

Question 9

What is Taoism/Daoism?

Answer 9

Dao:
The Dao is described as something complete and unformed, existing before heaven and earth.
It stands alone, unchanging, and pervades all things.
The Dao is like the mother of all things under heaven and is also known as “The Way.”
It represents the flow of the universe and is the source of all reality.
The universe was born from the Dao.
Li:
Li refers to the organic order of things, like how trees grow and water flows.
By observing Li, people can understand the Dao.
It represents the rhythm of life, where change is constant and cannot be fully expressed in words.
Observing Li helps people feel and see the nature of the Dao.
Wu Wei:
Wu Wei means “not doing” or acting without intent.
It involves not forcing things and not swimming against the current of the Dao.
It encourages going with the natural flow of life rather than resisting it.
Wu Wei suggests that humans should stop trying to impose morality and instead align with the natural stream of life.
Qi:
Qi is the life force or energy within everyone.
Good qi leads to a longer life, while poor qi has the opposite effect.
Breathing exercises and physical practices in Daoism focus on cultivating qi.
Inner boxing, a Daoist practice, emphasizes qi over physical strength.
The Dao That Can Be Told:
The true Dao cannot be fully expressed in words.
It is a simple yet profound element of existence.
People find each other and connect through the Dao.

Question 10

What did philosophers say about taoism/daoism?

Answer 10

Laozi:
Laozi observed the flow and rhythm of the universe.
He believed in the ultimate nature of reality and that everything is always changing.
According to Laozi, these changes are not random but follow natural patterns.
Zhuangzi:
Zhuangzi emphasized that our perceptions are unreliable and depend on our life experiences.

Question 11

Taoism/Daoism examples?

Answer 11

Star Wars and The Force:
The concept of the Force in Star Wars is similar to the Dao.
The Force surrounds, penetrates, and brings things together.
It is more spiritual than supernatural.
The light and dark sides of the Force reflect the balance of nature.
The idea of being one with the Force is like being interconnected with nature and going with the flow.
Yin and Yang
Yin and Yang represent the shady and sunny sides of a hill.
They show that nothing in the world stays the same.
Neither Yin nor Yang can exist without the other.
There is no growth without decline, no joy without sadness, and no life without death.
When people recognize good, they also create the concept of evil.

Question 12

What is Idealism?

Answer 12

Basic Idea: Idealism is the belief that reality is shaped by our mind or consciousness.
Simpler Terms: What we see as real is influenced by our thoughts, ideas, and how we perceive things.
Solipsism
Basic Idea: Solipsism is the belief that only one’s own mind is sure to exist.
Simpler Terms: It’s the idea that the self is the only thing we can be sure of, and everything else, like the external world and other people, might be uncertain or even imaginary.

Question 13

What did philosophers say about idealism?

Answer 13

Plato:
Basic Idea: Plato, an ancient Greek philosopher, believed that the material world is an imperfect copy of a higher realm of perfect forms or ideas.
Simpler Terms: Everything we see is just a flawed version of a perfect idea that exists in a higher reality.
Kant:
Basic Idea: Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, argued that our perception of reality is shaped by our mind’s abilities.
Simpler Terms: How we experience the world is constructed by our mind.
Berkeley:
Basic Idea: George Berkeley argued that the material world doesn’t exist independently of our perception.
Simpler Terms: Physical objects are just ideas or perceptions in our mind, and they don’t exist outside of what we perceive.

Question 14

What is materialism?

Answer 14

What It Means: Materialism is the belief that everything, including thoughts and feelings, can be explained by physical things like atoms and molecules.
In Simple Terms: Everything is made of physical stuff, and there’s nothing beyond that.
No Spiritual Realm: Materialism says there’s no separate realm for spiritual or non-physical things.
Science and Evidence: Materialists believe science and evidence are the best ways to understand how the world works.

Question 15

What did philosophers say about materialism?

Answer 15

Democritus:
What He Believed: Democritus, an ancient Greek philosopher, thought that everything is made of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
In Simple Terms: All matter is made of tiny building blocks called atoms.
Karl Marx:
What He Believed: Karl Marx, a German philosopher and economist, developed a materialist theory of history called historical materialism. He emphasized the role of economic factors in shaping society.
In Simple Terms: Economic conditions and material wealth shape how societies develop and change.
Ludwig Feuerbach:
What He Believed: Ludwig Feuerbach, a German philosopher, argued that religious beliefs are just projections of human desires and needs. He promoted a materialist view of religion and society.
In Simple Terms: Religion is created by humans based on their desires and can be understood through physical and social factors.

Question 16

What is dualism?

Answer 16

What It Means: Dualism is a philosophical idea that suggests there are two fundamental substances or categories of existence that contrast with each other.
In Simple Terms: It’s the belief that there are two separate and different things in the world.
Substance Dualism
Explanation: In philosophy of mind, substance dualism is the most common form of dualism.
Key Idea: It proposes that the mind (or soul) and body are distinct entities with different natures.
In Simpler Terms: Dualism in this context means believing that the mind and body are separate and different things.

Question 17

What did philosophers say about dualism?

Answer 17

René Descartes:
Belief: Descartes, a French philosopher, is seen as the father of modern philosophy.
Dualism: He proposed substance dualism, arguing that the mind (or soul) and body are two distinct substances.
Famous Quote: He famously said, “Cogito, ergo sum” (“I think, therefore I am”).
Interaction: Descartes suggested that the mind and body interact through the pineal gland.
Plato:
Belief: Plato, an ancient Greek philosopher, proposed a dualistic view of reality.
Dualism: He suggested that the material world is an imperfect reflection of a higher realm of eternal Forms or Ideas.
Metaphysical: Plato’s dualism is more metaphysical, emphasizing the distinction between the physical (material) and ideal (perfect) realms.
In Simple Terms: Plato believed that there’s a perfect world of ideas and a flawed world we experience.

Question 18

What did John Locke say about personhood?

Answer 18

John Locke:
Definition: Locke defined a person as a “thinking intelligent being” capable of reason, reflection, and self-awareness across time and space.
Controversy: His definition raises questions about whether all humans are persons and if non-human beings can be considered persons.

Question 19

What did Daniel Dennett say about personhood?

Answer 19

Conditions of Personhood: Dennett outlines six basic conditions including rationality, consciousness, and the ability to communicate, which could extend personhood to non-human creatures like dolphins and apes.
Critique: Some argue his criteria might exclude certain humans while including some animals.

Question 20

What did Mary Ann Warren say about personhood?

Answer 20

Criteria for Personhood: Warren identifies various criteria such as consciousness, reasoning ability, self-motivation, communication, and self-awareness.
Examples: An infant or someone with late-stage Alzheimer’s disease may still be considered a person despite lacking certain abilities.

Question 21

What did Annette Baier say about personhood?

Answer 21

Person Tests: Baier discusses “person tests” that emphasize cognitive abilities and individual characteristics over social roles and interpersonal dynamics.
Critique: She suggests these tests may overlook the relational and social aspects of personhood, which are crucial in human development.

Question 22

What are the 4 self view theories and the philosophers for them?

Answer 22

Substance Theory (Descartes)
Bundle Theory (David Hume)
Narrative Theory (Paul Ricoeur and others)
Project Theory (Jean-Paul Sartre)

Question 23

What is the substance theory?

Answer 23

Substance Theory (Descartes)
Idea: The self is a unified and unchanging substance, not physical but mental.
Analogy: Like a captain controlling a ship, the self directs the body and mind.
Experience: It supports changing experiences but remains constant as the subject of those experiences.
Access: Individuals have the most intimate knowledge of their own selves.

Question 24

What is the bundle theory?

Answer 24

Bundle Theory (David Hume)
Idea: The self is not a distinct entity but a collection or bundle of fleeting perceptions and experiences.
Experience: Upon introspection, Hume found no unified or continuous self, only fragmented perceptions like ideas, memories, and desires.
Unity: There’s no inherent unity; the self is just a loose collection of these perceptions.

Question 25

What is the narrative theory?

Answer 25

Narrative Theory (Paul Ricoeur and others)
Idea: The self is defined and understood through the narratives or stories people create about their lives.
Narrative Structure: Individuals make sense of their experiences by weaving them into a coherent narrative.
Identity: The unity of the self arises from the unity of the narrative that identifies it.
Continuity: Life continually generates new narratives, shaping and reshaping the understanding of the self.

Question 26

What is the project theory?

Answer 26

Project Theory (Jean-Paul Sartre)
Idea: The self is not a fixed entity but a dynamic and ongoing project. The self isn’t something we have but something we actively create through our actions and choices.
Temporal View: It’s more like an event unfolding over time, constantly under construction.
Coherence: The self is defined by a fundamental project, which integrates feelings, desires, and thoughts into a coherent whole.
Interpretation: Each action and emotion reflects the ongoing project of defining oneself.

Question 27

What are the 6 different meanings of a supreme being?

Answer 27

Theism
Deism
Polytheism
Monotheism
Pantheism
Panentheism

Question 28

What is theism?

Answer 28

Meaning: Belief in one or more gods who actively created the universe and can intervene in human affairs through miracles and revelations.
Example: Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.

Question 29

What is deism?

Answer 29

Meaning: Belief in a supreme being who created the universe but does not interfere in its ongoing operations or perform miracles.
Example: Many Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire.

Question 30

What is polytheism?

Answer 30

Meaning: Belief in multiple gods, each with specific roles in governing different aspects of the universe.
Example: Ancient Greek and Roman religions.

Question 31

What is monotheism?

Answer 31

Meaning: Belief in one supreme, perfect, and all-powerful God who created and governs the entire universe.
Examples: Christianity, Islam, Judaism.

Question 32

What is pantheism?

Answer 32

Meaning: Belief that God or a divine force is present in everything in the universe, seeing the divine in all aspects of existence.
Example: Some interpretations of Eastern religions and philosophies.

Question 33

What is panentheism?

Answer 33

Meaning: Belief that God is present in everything in the universe and that everything is a part of God, but God also transcends beyond the universe.
Example: Philosophies like that of Baruch Spinoza, which see the universe as encompassed within God.

Question 34

What are the 5 different explanations for the existence of God?

Answer 34

Ontological Argument
Cosmological Argument
Argument from Design
Pascal’s Wager
Atheism

Question 35

What is Ontological Argument?

Answer 35

Idea: You can’t definitively prove or disprove God’s existence using pure logic alone.
Reasoning: The mere idea of a perfect being (like God) suggests that such a being exists inherently.

Question 36

What is Cosmological Argument?

Answer 36

Idea: Uses the concept of causation to argue for God’s existence.
Logic: States there must be a first cause or a necessary being from which all other things derive their existence.
Criticism: Some argue that what God is supposed to explain (like the universe’s existence) doesn’t necessarily need explaining.

Question 37

What is Argument from Design?

Answer 37

Idea: Sees order and purpose in the natural world as evidence of a divine creator.
Example: Just as a watch implies a watchmaker, the universe implies a creator (God).

Question 38

What is Pascal’s Wager?

Answer 38

Idea: A practical argument for believing in God by Blaise Pascal.
Logic: If you believe in God and God exists, you gain infinite happiness; if not, you lose little. If God doesn’t exist and you believe, you lose little; if not, you gain little.
Choice: Essentially, it’s safer to believe in God because the potential reward is infinite.

Question 39

What is Atheism?

Answer 39

Definition: Denial of belief in God or spiritual beings.
Perspective: Leaves open the question of God’s existence, finding it unanswered or unanswerable.
Position: Generally denies the existence of God or gods, rejecting all religious belief.

Question 40

What is hard determinism?

Answer 40

Belief: Everything, including human actions, is caused by prior events according to natural laws.
Assertion: Free will is an illusion; our choices are predetermined by factors outside our control.
Example: If you chose vanilla ice cream over chocolate, it was determined by your circumstances, not by your free choice.

Question 41

What is soft determinism?

Answer 41

Belief: Like hard determinism, it accepts that every event, including human actions, is causally determined.
Clarification: We can still act freely as long as our actions are not constrained or coerced.
Conditions: For example, if your actions are influenced by your desires and not forced by external factors like threats.

Question 42

What is free will?

Answer 42

Definition: The ability of humans to make decisions and perform actions independently, without being fully determined by prior events or natural laws.
Assertion: It suggests that we have the power to choose and act based on our own will, separate from external forces or predetermined conditions.

Question 43

What is nihilism?

Answer 43

Belief: Nihilists argue that life is meaningless. They see human existence as ultimately insignificant, whether now or in the future.
Perspective: According to Arthur Schopenhauer, life is an error in the grand scheme of nothingness, where our actions have no lasting impact.
Critique: Some argue that if nothing has inherent meaning, then even the concept of meaninglessness loses its significance.

Question 44

What is theistic?

Answer 44

Belief: Theists believe life is meaningful because a loving, all-powerful God created humans with a purpose.
Meaning Source: The meaning of life is not self-made but is part of God’s plan, which individuals must discover.
Example: Leo Tolstoy found solace in observing religious peasants who found purpose through faith, contrasting with scientific views that reduced life to random atoms.

Question 45

What is non-theistic?

Answer 45

Belief: Life’s meaning is found in worldly practices, not in supernatural beliefs.
Existential Perspective: Humans are born without a predetermined essence or divine purpose. They define their existence as they live and experience life.
Freedom: Individuals shape their own meaning through their choices and actions, rather than being guided by a predefined plan or essence.

Question 46

What did Gorgias say to whether moral choices are possible or not?

Answer 46

impossible to make choices
believed that moral choices were impossible because he doubted the existence of anything at all. (Nihilism)
because we can’t be sure of anything, we can’t know if moral truths exist, leaving ethical decisions without a solid foundation.

Question 47

What did Isaac Newton say to whether moral choices are possible or not?

Answer 47

choices predetermined
everything in the universe operates according to universal laws, including the behavior of matter.
our choices might be predetermined by the way our brains are made up, leaving little room for free will in moral decision-making.

Question 48

What did Charles Darwin say to whether moral choices are possible or not?

Answer 48

not freely make choices
Determinist
our actions are shaped by our biology or genetic makeup, not our choices, suggesting that moral decisions might not be as freely made as we think.
he’d argue that criminals aren’t freely choosing a life of crime but are rather driven by their biology or genes to behave that way.

Question 49

What did Sigmund Freud say to whether moral choices are possible or not?

Answer 49

freely make choices by desires
people can freely make moral choices.
Driven by unconscious desires
psychological egoism, which says humans are wired to act only in their own self-interest
we always choose what brings us the most pleasure, even if it looks like we’re making sacrifices.

Question 50

What did B.F Skinner say to whether moral choices are possible or not?

Answer 50

determined by experiences
moral choices might not be as freely made as we think.
theory that says human behavior, like that of animals, is mainly a reaction to what’s happening around us. These reactions are like habits we’ve learned through experiences.
leaving little room for true choice in how we behave
suggests that our actions are more influenced by our surroundings and past experiences than by conscious decisions about right or wrong.

Question 51

What did Alfred Jules Ayer and Richard Rorty say to whether moral choices are possible or not?

Answer 51

determined by facts
logical positivism
Proven true or false by facts
debating moral issues was pointless because ethical statements don’t have clear meaning.
there are no moral facts. Without moral facts, they said it’s impossible to make real moral choices.
However, they still believed in following laws, not because they’re moral, but simply because they’re laws.

Question 52

What did David Hume say to whether moral choices are possible or not?

Answer 52

determined by emotion
emotivism
He thought moral statements were just expressions of feelings or attitudes, not facts.
moral claims are just expressions of how we feel about something, like saying we like or dislike it.

Question 53

What do ethical absolutists say?

Answer 53

one set of rules
there’s one set of rules that everyone should follow, no matter what. They think these rules are the ultimate guide for what’s right and wrong, and they apply to everyone, regardless of the situation or where they come from.

Question 54

What do ethical universalists say?

Answer 54

one set of rules but can be broken in certain situations if for the better outcomes
there’s one set of rules that decides what’s right and wrong for everyone. But unlike the first group, they say these rules can be broken in certain situations. They believe that sometimes, it’s okay to go against these rules if it leads to better outcomes or if the circumstances call for it.

Question 55

What do ethical relativists say?

Answer 55

depends on what is right and wrong
sit at the other end.
they believe that what’s considered right or wrong depends on things like where you are, who you are, and what’s happening around you. They say that since there’s no way to judge between different moral rules, all of them are equally valid.
if a society thinks something is right, then for them, it is right.

Question 56

Are legal and right the same thing?

Answer 56

what’s legal isn’t always what’s considered morally right.
lying to someone isn’t illegal, but many people see it as morally wrong.
laws might not always align with what’s truly right or wrong.

Question 57

What does “Objective” mean?

Answer 57

“Objective” means facts backed by evidence, not influenced by personal feelings or opinions.

Question 58

What does “Subjective” mean?

Answer 58

“Subjective” refers to opinions or viewpoints that are influenced by personal feelings, experiences, or thoughts.

Question 59

What three camps do ethical or moral objectivists fall into?

Answer 59

1. Some people think moral values come from a higher power, like God or Allah.
2. Others believe they come from nature or our biology, like determinists who think we’re programmed to act in certain ways.
3. The biggest group believes moral values come from human reasoning.

Question 60

What is utilitarianism?

Answer 60

bringing the most good to the most people.
They believe that a morally right choice is one that brings the greatest happiness or pleasure to the greatest number of people.
Consumerism: morally good for products if happiness to a lot of people but considering the downsides (intensity, duration, certainty, etc.) (7 total)

Question 61

What are kantian ethics?

Answer 61

focuses on the intention behind our actions rather than the consequences.
treating others with respect, not just trying to get the best outcome.
Consumerism: it’s not just about whether buying stuff makes us happy or not. It’s about whether we’re treating others with respect and dignity in the process.

Question 62

What are egoists?

Answer 62

looking out for number one, or acting in your own self-interest.
Philosophical egoism says we should act in our own interest, not just that we naturally do. It’s like saying, “Do what’s best for you.”
Consumerism: egoists would say go ahead and buy what makes you happy, regardless of how it affects others or society. Prioritize your own desires and needs when making purchasing decisions.

Question 63

What are utilitarist perspectives on pirating?

Answer 63

each action maximizing happiness and minimizing harm.
Pirating: Would weigh, see if it balances. If pirating causes more harm than good, they’d say it’s morally wrong. But if it brings more happiness overall, they might see it as acceptable.

Question 64

What are rule utilitarist perspectives on pirating?

Answer 64

focuses on following rules that lead to the greatest good for society overall.
Pirating: allowing pirating as a general rule could harm creators and discourage them from making more content, ultimately leading to less overall happiness. Therefore, they might say that prohibiting pirating is the rule that leads to the greatest good for society.
maximize happiness for everyone in the long run.

Question 65

What are kantian perspectives on pirating?

Answer 65

lying, cheating, and stealing are always wrong. Kantians believe in treating others with respect and dignity.
Pirating: morally wrong. Categorical imperative: which says that if an action isn’t okay for everyone to do, then it’s not okay for anyone to do.
Kantians would argue that if it’s okay for one person to download music without paying, then it would have to be okay for everyone. But that would mean no one’s supporting the creators, which goes against respecting their work and efforts.

Question 66

What are confucianist perspectives on pirating?

Answer 66

communal harmony and mutual respect within society.
Pirating: everything should be freely shared among everyone for the benefit of all.
prioritize communal sharing and collective benefit over individual ownership and profit.
They think that restricting access to these things goes against the idea of working together and helping each other out.

Question 67

What are the 4 perspectives on a good life?

Answer 67

The Buddhist Answer
The Confucianist and Taoist answer
The Hedonist answer
The Stoic Answer

Question 68

What is The Buddhist Answer?

Answer 68

Nirvana, caring for others rather than personal desires
Buddhists
Buddhism says life is full of suffering, mainly because of our desires. But it also says we can end this suffering by getting rid of our desires.
To do this, Buddhists follow the Eightfold Path, which includes things like having the right understanding, thoughts, speech, actions, and livelihood.
The goal of following this path is to reach Nirvana, which is like ultimate peace and happiness.
Buddhists believe that living a good life means following this path and reducing suffering, even if it means making sacrifices, like caring for family instead of pursuing personal desires.
Some people question Buddhist beliefs, like the idea of being reborn, and think that life isn’t just suffering. They also say that the Eightfold Path isn’t always clear-cut in its definitions.

Question 69

What is The Confucianist and Taoist Answer?

Answer 69

Harmonious society
Zhuangzi
Kongfuzi
Laozi
Confucianism says a good life means finding peace and balance by living in harmony with others.
It focuses on creating a harmonious society by following traditions and roles.
Confucianists see people as part of a larger community, not just as individuals.
They believe that a good person shows kindness, honesty, respect, wisdom, and loyalty to themselves and others.
Confucianism teaches the Golden Rule: Treat others how you want to be treated.
But it doesn’t have all the answers. What if your family expects you to act differently from what you believe is right? And should you still respect elders who don’t follow Confucian values themselves? These are tough questions without easy solutions.

Question 70

What is The Hedonist Answer?

Answer 70

Pleasurable life
Epicurus
Hedonists think a good life is all about enjoying pleasure.
Some think pleasure means physical pleasures, like eating good food or feeling comfortable.
They believe that seeking pleasure leads to happiness.
Epicurus, a famous hedonist, said that mental pleasures, like feeling calm and satisfied, are important too.
He thought you could find peace by wanting less and not being scared of things, which sounds kind of like Buddhist teachings.

Question 71

What is The Stoic Answer?

Answer 71

Wisdom and being happy, focus on what we can control, a way of thinking about life not rules
Zeno of Citium
Stoics believe that living a good life means being happy.
They think happiness comes from wisdom, not just pleasure.
Living in harmony with the universe is key.
Stoics say we should focus on what we can control, like our thoughts and actions, not things we can’t control.
They believe trying to control what we can’t leads to frustration.
A Stoic wouldn’t worry about fitting in with current trends, like body shape.
Stoicism isn’t a full set of rules for how to live, but more of a way to think about life.

Question 72

What is utopianism?

Answer 72

It is the idea of a perfect society.
In this society, there is no money.
Because there’s no money, there are no rich or poor people.
Everyone shares resources equally.

Question 73

What is the social contract?

Answer 73

It’s an idea about how a government’s power is legitimate.
Leaders get their power because the people agree to it.
Leaders must use their power fairly and not abuse it.
Leaders stay in power only as long as most people want them to.
When these conditions are met, the government is a democracy, meaning “rule by the people.”
Imagine a deal between people and their government.
People agree to follow rules, and the government promises to protect them.
People give up some freedom, like not being able to do whatever they want, in exchange for safety and order.
The government gets power from the people to make and enforce rules.
It helps keep society fair and peaceful.
It’s like a rulebook for how people and governments should treat each other.

Question 74

What is negative freedom?

Answer 74

It’s about being free from others controlling you.
No one, including the government, can force you to do something you don’t want to do.
not being restricted by others

Question 75

What is positive freedom?

Answer 75

It’s about having the power to make your own choices.
You can control your own life and decide what you want to do.
having the means to pursue your own goals

Question 76

When does a state power become legitimate?

Answer 76

A state’s power becomes legitimate, or recognized as proper and worthy of respect and obedience, when the following conditions are met:
Consent of the People: Leaders gain power because the people agree to it.
Fair Exercise of Power: Leaders use their power in a fair and restrained manner, without abusing it.
Majority Support: Leaders stay in power only as long as the majority of citizens want them to.

Question 77

What is equality and distribution of goods?

Answer 77

Different Views on How Society Should Be:
Egalitarians:
They believe in making sure everyone is equal in society, both socially and economically.
They think the government should step in to make sure wealth is shared fairly among people.
They want to use things like higher taxes for the wealthy, giving money to everyone, and social programs to make sure everyone has a fair chance.
Non Egalitarianism (like Hayek and Friedman):
They think that making everyone equal is not practical because of how people naturally behave.
They prefer a system like capitalism, where people have freedom to make money and own property.
Some people think these measures won’t work well because they would need too much control from the government, similar to communism.
About Property Rights:
Proponents (like Locke):
They think owning property is a basic right that shouldn’t be taken away by the government.
Non Proponents (like Rousseau):
They argue that private property causes inequality and unfairness in society.

Question 78

Who are the philosophers of equality and distribution of goods?

Answer 78

Plato:
He imagined a society where rulers didn’t own anything personally to avoid corruption.
Thomas More:
He suggested a society where nobody owned private property for fairness.
Karl Marx:
He wanted to make sure poor people were treated fairly and criticized rich people for exploiting the poor.
Modern Thinkers (like Charles Taylor and G.E. Cohen):
They support the idea of making sure everyone has equal opportunities.
Critics of Egalitarianism (like Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman):
They think too much government control won’t work and prefer a system where individuals can succeed through their own efforts.
John Locke:
He believed people should have the right to own property and the government shouldn’t take that away.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau:
He believed private property caused problems in society and made things unfair.

Question 79

What is equal opportunity?

Answer 79

What it Means:
Everyone should have the same chance to do things like get a job or education, no matter their gender, race, or background.
It’s about getting rid of unfair treatment and making sure people can succeed based on their abilities.
History:
In the past, some groups like women and slaves were treated unfairly and didn’t have the same opportunities.
Philosophers like Plato said women should have the same chance at education as men.
During the Enlightenment, people started fighting for equal rights, leading to revolutions and movements for fairness.
Challenges Today:
Even though things have improved, some groups still face barriers like not being able to afford education or being treated unfairly.
Women and minorities may still not have as many chances to succeed in different parts of society.

Question 80

Who are the philosophers for equal opportunity?

Answer 80

Plato:
He said women should have the same chance at education as men.
Enlightenment Thinkers (like Locke, Rousseau, and Paine):
They argued for fairness and equal rights during a time of big changes in society.

Question 81

What is freedom and individualism?

Answer 81

Limits on Behavior:
Communitarians:
They think sometimes it’s necessary to control what people do if it’s bad for society or the person.
They worry about the government controlling people’s behavior too much, even if it’s meant to help.
Changes Over Time:
Changes:
In the past century, societies got more okay with things like drugs, abortion, and sex. Laws got less strict about these things, giving people more freedom to live how they wanted.
Debate Between Two Kinds of Freedom:
Negative vs. Positive Freedom:
Negative freedom is about not being controlled. Positive freedom is about being able to do what you want effectively.
Communitarians think sometimes it’s okay to limit negative freedom for the good of everyone. Individualists believe people’s rights and freedom should come first.

Question 82

Who are the philosophers for freedom and individualism?

Answer 82

John Stuart Mill:
He said people should be free to do what they want unless it hurts others.
He liked people being free to do what they wanted. He said unless someone’s actions hurt others, the government shouldn’t get involved.
Mill thought each person’s rights were really important.
Isaiah Berlin:
He thought the government shouldn’t make people do things for the “greater good” if it takes away their freedom.
He agreed with Mill. He thought the government should let people choose freely. He didn’t like when governments made people behave in certain ways for the “greater good.”
Communitarians:
Thinkers like Charles Taylor say it’s okay to limit freedom sometimes for the good of society.

Question 83

What is crime and punishment?

Answer 83

Historical Variation:
Different Ideas:
Throughout history, different places had their own rules about what’s a crime and how to punish it.
Why Punish:
Getting Even:
Some think punishment should match the crime, like “an eye for an eye.”
Critics of Getting Even:
Others say this just leads to revenge and doesn’t make society better.
Scaring People:
Some believe punishment should be scary to stop others from doing bad things.
Helping People Change:
A newer idea is to use punishment to help people change and become part of society again.

Question 84

Who are the philosophers for crime and punishment?

Answer 84

Immanuel Kant:
He thought punishment should be fair and the same for everyone.
Jeremy Bentham:
He wanted to make people as happy as possible with punishment.
John Stuart Mill:
He cared a lot about people being free and happy.
Cesare Beccaria:
He wanted punishments to make sense and stop people from doing more bad stuff.

Question 85

What is Hobbes’s view?

Answer 85

Law & Order
No Justification for Rebellion:
Hobbes didn’t think people should rebel against the government, no matter how bad it was.
He believed it’s better to have a bad ruler than no ruler at all because without a ruler, there’s chaos and fighting, which he saw during England’s civil war.
Control by the State:
Hobbes thought people created governments to avoid chaos.
When people formed societies, they agreed to follow rules and give up some freedom to the government.
In return, the government promised to protect them and keep things in order.
Absolute Power of Rulers:
Hobbes believed rulers should have total power over their subjects.
But he also thought rulers should be smart and not do things that hurt their people because it would weaken the country.
No Right to Resist:
According to Hobbes, people have no right to go against the government, even if it’s really bad.
He didn’t believe in the old idea of common good driving politics. Instead, he focused on keeping order.
Influence Today:
Even now, some people agree with Hobbes that having rules and order is better than chaos, even if it means giving up some freedom.

Question 86

What is Locke’s view?

Answer 86

Free Will
State of Nature:
Locke believed that originally, people lived freely with natural rights like life, liberty, and property. But without rules, these rights weren’t always respected.
Social Contract:
He said people agreed to form societies to protect their rights, not give them up. This agreement was the social contract.
Difference from Hobbes:
Unlike Hobbes, Locke thought people were naturally good. He also believed in natural law and that societies should protect natural rights, not just maintain order.
Power of the People:
Locke said political power comes from the people, not just rulers. People create governments to protect their rights and can rebel if rulers don’t do their job.
Not a Democrat:
But Locke didn’t think everyone should have a say. He believed only male property owners should have rights. Others like women, slaves, and poor people were left out.
Emphasis on Liberty:
Locke’s ideas inspired many democracies, but he didn’t focus on making society equal. He thought people with property should have more say in government.

Question 87

What is Plato’s Anti-Democratic Republic view?

Answer 87

Average Person:
Plato didn’t trust regular people to make good political decisions. He thought they weren’t smart enough.
Three Groups:
Plato’s ideal society had workers, soldiers, and rulers (guardians).
Workers made stuff, soldiers protected the state, and rulers made laws and ran things.
No Family:
Families weren’t a thing in Plato’s world. Kids were raised together, and nobody knew who their parents were.
Color-Coded Groups:
People were divided into groups based on what they did: gold for rulers, silver for soldiers, and bronze for workers.
Marriage:
People had to marry within their group, but exceptions were allowed if it helped the state.
Equal Rights for Women:
Plato believed women should be educated and take part in society just like men.
Communist-like Society:
Everyone owned stuff together, and there was no money. Plato thought this would make everyone equal, judged only by their smarts and character.
Philosopher Kings:
These rulers were super-educated in math, music, exercise, and philosophy. They couldn’t have personal stuff to avoid corruption.
Plato’s Argument:
Leading a society is hard and needs special skills.
Not everyone has these skills, so only those who do should be rulers.
Rulers should have power for the good of everyone.

Question 88

What is Aristotle’s Best State for Each Society view?

Answer 88

Not into Ideal States:
Aristotle wasn’t about imagining perfect societies. His main work, Politics, looked at real-world political systems and what worked best.
Observant Approach:
He studied existing governments to see what worked and what didn’t. His approach was more about describing than prescribing.
Goal of Happiness:
Aristotle believed humans’ goal was happiness. He thought the best society helps people achieve this by being reasonable, moderate, and secure.
Types of Governments:
Aristotle grouped governments into monarchies, aristocracies, and democracies (polities).
Each had its good points, but they could also fail if taken to extremes.
Combining the Best:
He thought a mix of the best parts of each government type could work well, avoiding their bad sides.
Democracy’s Importance:
Aristotle saw democracy as valuable because it gives citizens a say in governing, promoting liberty and equality.
Rule of Law:
Aristotle believed law is crucial for keeping order. It helps reason win over power struggles in society.
Need for Moderation:
He emphasized the importance of moderation and stability in politics, warning against societies with big gaps between rich and poor.
Customized States:
Aristotle thought the best state varies for each society. But he warned against extreme inequality.

Question 89

What are the 4 articles about? (Unit 3)

Answer 89

Veil of Ignorance:
Rawls’ Ideal Conditions:
Equal rights and liberties, power and opportunities, fair income, and justice as fairness.
Structuring Society:
Ensure basic rights, equal opportunities, economic fairness, support for the least advantaged, and promoting self-respect.
Basic Income:
Global Findings:
Positive impacts observed in various countries, including improved health, education, and reduced crime.
Country-Specific Programs:
Examples from the US, Canada, Brazil, Finland, Germany, and Spain show benefits in health, education, and overall well-being.
Speeding Fines:
Pros:
Deters dangerous driving, ensures equal impact regardless of wealth, and promotes public safety.
Cons:
May be perceived as unfair, enforcement complexity, and potential economic harm.
Fairness Considerations:
Ensures proportionality, equality before the law, and promotes public safety.
Starbucks Barista Case:
Circumstances:
Barista fired for eating discarded food, violating company policy.
Policy Adherence vs. Human Needs:
Starbucks enforced policy, but the termination left the barista financially vulnerable.
Justice Served:
Arguments for and against justice being served, highlighting policy adherence vs. human compassion.

Question 90

What is justice?

Answer 90

“Justice means treating people fairly and giving them what they deserve. In a just society, everyone gets what’s right for them based on their actions and circumstances.”