Philosophy Basics

Question 1

What is Philosophy?

Answer 1

1) conceptual engineering
2) a science of presupposition
3) love of wisdom
4) logic, precision in thought, argumentation

Question 2

What does Philosophy deal with?

Answer 2

It is an inquiry into problems which cannot be resolved by more empirical evidence (non-empirical = a priori; everything has a cause in a deterministic universe)

Question 3

Does Philosophy have precise definitions?

Answer 3

No, it is not Maths. Philosophy needs reasoning and proof.

Question 4

In Simon Blackburn’s “Think”, what is the author’s main point?

Answer 4

The author discusses the types of philosophical questions an individual can ask. These are
1) questions about ourselves (What am I?)
2) questions about the world (What is the difference between past and future?)
3) questions about ourselves in the world (How can we be sure about what we see?)

More importantly, these questions require non-empirical answers (philosophical), which draws a line between Science and Philosophy, since the answer relies on the lens of the reality of the person answering.

Moreover, there are types of answers:
1) high ground (appeals to half-convinced people)
2) middle ground (has reasoning and describes familiarities, something that people had experienced, such as perpetual motion, body-mind connections (blushing, nervousness)
3) low ground (“the sleep of reason”)

The author stimulates the readers to think critically and search for reasons, which is the basis of Philosophy.

Question 5

What is Critical Thinking in Philosophy?

Answer 5

Philosophy as a method is critical thinking, or, informally, logic.

Question 6

What does Logic do?

Answer 6

Logic evaluates arguments.

Question 7

What is an Argument?

Answer 7

An Argument is a group of statements that consists of one/more premises and ONE conclusion (claim).

*An Unsupported statement is not an Argument

Question 8

What are the properties of a Statement?

Answer 8

It can be TRUE or FALSE. Helps to make an Argument.

Question 9

What is a Premise?

Answer 9

Premises are STATEMENTS that are CLAIMED to give support to the conclusion.

Question 10

Give an example of an Argument.

Answer 10

General structure:
P1=S1
P2=S2
C=S3
(True premises always support the conclusion)

A=B
B=C
Therefore, A=C

Question 11

How do we know if an Argument is bad?

Answer 11

If premises are FALSE, then it is a BAD argument.

Question 12

What is NOT an Argument?

Answer 12

1. Statement of belief or opinion (I think/I believe)
2. Loosely associated statements (no common theme/connection = lack inferential claim)
3. Report (looks like a description, does not aim to prove a point)
4. Expository passage (has a topic sentence followed by developing sentences)
5. Illustration (looks like an expository passage)
6. Explanation (explains, but does not prove. For instance, “water can turn into ice at 0 degrees, that is why we can have ice cubes)
7. Conditional statements (THEY CAN BE A CLAIM)

Question 13

Explanandum vs. Explanans

Answer 13

The thing to explain vs. Something that explains

Explanandum: The child is ugly
Explanans: The father is ugly
An ugly father will have an ugly child

Question 14

Types of Arguments

Answer 14

Deductive and Inductive

Question 15

Deductive Argument

Answer 15

If Premises are TRUE, then it is IMPOSSIBLE for the conclusion to be FALSE

The deductive argument is:
1) Based on Mathematics

2) Based on definitions

3) Categorical syllogism
*has exactly TWO premises and a conclusion
*uses CATEGORIES “ALL”, “SOME”, “NO”

4) Hypothetical syllogism
* “If…, then …”

5) Disjunctive syllogism
* “Either, or”

Question 16

Categorical syllogism example:

Answer 16

P1: Some cats are friendly
P2: All cats are mammals
C: Some mammals are friendly

Question 17

Hypothetical syllogism example:

Answer 17

P1: If I do not get paid (A), then I cannot buy food (B)
P2: If I cannot buy food (B), then I starve (C)
C: If I do not get paid (A), then I starve (C)

If A, then B
If B, then C
If A, then C

Question 18

Disjunctive syllogism example:

Answer 18

P1: The apple is either sour or sweet
P2: The apple is not sour
C: Therefore, the apple is sweet

Question 19

Inductive Argument

Answer 19

If Premises are TRUE, then it is IMPROBABLE for the conclusion to be FALSE

The inductive argument is:
1) Prediction (premises describe known events in the past or present, conclusion is a prediction)

2) Argument from Analogy (two similar facts)

Example: P1: Peter has a reliable German car
P2: Christina has a German car
C: Therefore, Christina’s car is also reliable
3) Inductive Generalization
- premises describe a sample
- conclusion extends the characteristics to the whole group

4) Argument from Authority
Example:
P1: A Scientist says that the Earth is spherical
P2: A Scientist is an Astronomer
C: Therefore, the Earth is spherical

5) Arguments based on Signs
P: The sign says that B
C: B is true

6) Causal inference
Illustrates causation

Question 20

What are Extended Arguments?

Answer 20

These are arguments that have patterns of longer arguments; and can have sub-arguments and multiple conclusions

1) at least one sub-conclusion

• Horizontal pattern (independent reasons/premises)
• Vertical pattern
• Conjoint premises (combined)
• Newspapers’ arguments

If one part is irrelevant, then the argument falls apart

Question 21

Hidden premises

Answer 21

Sometimes there is ONE premise, where it should be TWO conjoint premises

Why?
1) It is obvious
2) OR the statement is WEAK/CONTROVERSIAL)

P1: The number of
crimes are increasing
C: The capital punishment should be re-introduced

This argument is very weak. If you think that it is OK, you
assume that something else is true:

P2: The re-introduction of CP
can reduce the number of
crimes

(These are Conjoint premises)

Question 22

What is validity and soundness?

Answer 22

Validity: An argument is VALID if its premises are TRUE and the conclusion is TRUE
Soundness: An argument is SOUND if it meets these two criteria: (1) It is VALID. (2) Its premises + conclusion are TRUE

If the argument is INVALID, it is UNSOUND
When analysing an argument always ask two questions in the following order:
– Do the premises support the conclusion? (i.e., is the argument valid?)
– Are the premises true? (i.e., is the argument sound?)

Factual condition = true claims

However, an inferential condition is more important – evaluated first

Inferential condition = the arguer infers a new statement from the evidence
* Do the premises support the conclusion?
* Are the premises true?

Question 23

What is a claim?

Answer 23

An objective claim is a statement about a factual matter that can be proven true or false

Question 24

What are logical fallacies?

Answer 24

Typically, it is a manipulation to make your argument look valid.

Question 25

Vertical Pattern (Extended Arguments)

Answer 25

The conclusion of a prior argument becomes the premise
of another argument

(1)The selling of human organs should be banned. (2)Allowing human organs to be sold will lead to a situation in which only the rich will be able to afford transplants. This is so because (3)whenever something scarce is bought and sold as a commodity, the price always goes up. (4)The law of supply and demand requires it.

(4)
(3)
(2)
(1)

Question 26

Horizontal Pattern (Extended Arguments)

Answer 26

The conclusion is supported by more independent premises
(1)The selling of human organs should be banned. (2) If it is allowed, people in financial need will start selling their organs. Also, (3) criminals will start killing healthy young people and sell their organs on the black market.

(2) & (3) (separately) contribute to (1)

Question 27

Conjoint Premises (Extended Arguments)

Answer 27

Two or more premises, which independently give little or no support to a conclusion, but together give substantial support.
(1) Whenever it is raining, it is wet. (2) It is
raining. Therefore, (3) it is wet.

{(1) & (2)}
|
(1)

Question 28

Cogent Arguments

Answer 28

Definition: A cogent argument is a strong non-deductive (INDUCTIVE) argument that has true premises.

The premises are intended to establish probable (but not conclusive) support for the conclusion.

Can be strong, not valid