Philosophy Flashcards
Who is considered the father of Western philosophy?
Socrates (470-399 BCE)
What was Socrates’ famous method of inquiry?
The Socratic method, which involves asking probing questions to stimulate critical thinking
What was the main idea of Heraclitus’ philosophy?
Heraclitus believed that change is the fundamental essence of the universe, famously stating that no one steps in the same river twice.
Which philosophical school did Zeno of Citium found?
Zeno of Citium founded Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy that emphasized ethics, logic, and the natural world.
Człowiek jest miarą wszystkich rzeczy. Man is the measure of all things.
Homo mensura omnium rerum est.
~Protagoras
What was the central concept in Plato’s philosophy?
The Theory of Forms, which posits that non-material abstract forms (or ideas) represent the most accurate reality.
Who was Aristotle’s most famous student?
Alexander the Great, who Aristotle tutored before Alexander became the king of Macedonia.
Achivements of Eratostenes
method of finding prime numbers – the sieve of Eratosthenes;
determination of the Earth’s circumference
estimation of the distance from the Earth to the Sun and Moon
catalogue of 675 stars
construction of the mesolabium
Poznaj samego siebie. Know thyself.
Nosce te ipsum. “Nosce te ipsum” ~Inscription at the Temple of Apollo at Delphi
What was the main focus of Epicurean philosophy?
Epicureanism focused on attaining happiness and tranquility through simple pleasures and freedom from fear and pain.
Who founded the Cynic school of philosophy?
Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates, is considered the founder of Cynicism, though Diogenes of Sinope is its most famous proponent.
Wiem że nic nie wiem. I know that I know nothing.
Scio me nihil scire. ~Socrates
What was the main principle of Stoic philosophy?
The Stoics believed in living in accordance with reason and virtue, accepting one’s fate, and maintaining emotional equilibrium.
Which philosopher is known for his paradoxes about motion?
Zeno of Elea, who proposed paradoxes such as “Achilles and the Tortoise” to challenge concepts of infinity and motion.
Achilles and the Tortoise paradox
The paradox concerns a race between the fleet-footed Achilles and a slow-moving tortoise. The two start moving at the same moment, but if the tortoise is initially given a head start and continues to move ahead, Achilles can run at any speed and will never catch up with it. Zeno’s argument rests on the presumption that Achilles must first reach the point where the tortoise started, by which time the tortoise will have moved ahead, even if but a small distance, to another point; by the time Achilles traverses the distance to this latter point, the tortoise will have moved ahead to another, and so on.
Nie można wejść dwa razy do tej samej rzeki. You cannot step twice into the same river.
“Non bis in idem flumen descendimus” ~Heraclitus
What was the main focus of Socrates’ philosophical inquiries?
Socrates primarily focused on ethics, encouraging people to examine their own beliefs and values through questioning.
Who founded the Academy in Athens?
Plato founded the Academy in Athens around 387 BCE, which is often considered the first institution of higher learning in the Western world.
Who was the most distinguished pupil of Plato?
Aristotle
Who was the most distinguished pupil of Sokrates?
Plato
Who was the most distinguished pupil of Aristotle?
Alexander the Great
Wszystko płynie. Everything flows.
Panta rhei. “Panta rei” ~Heraclitus
What was the central idea of Democritus’ philosophy?
Democritus proposed the atomic theory, suggesting that all matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.
Which philosopher is known as the “laughing philosopher”?
Democritus is often referred to as the “laughing philosopher” due to his emphasis on the value of cheerfulness.
Człowiek z natury jest zwierzęciem politycznym. Man is by nature a political animal.
Homo est naturaliter politicum animal. “Homo est naturaliter politikum animal” ~Aristotle
Who was philosopher in a barrel? And what is his philosophy?
Diogenes of Sinope, known as the “philosopher in a barrel,” was a notable figure in the Cynic school of philosophy.
Introduced the concept of cosmopolitanism, declaring himself a “citizen of the world”.
What school Aristotle founded?
Founded the Peripatetic school of philosophy, known for walking around during the lecture.
Who was Augustine of Hippo in medieval philosophy?
Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE) was one of the greatest Church Fathers and considered the “Christianized Plato.” He was primarily a theologian and devotional writer whose philosophical thoughts centered on truth, God, the human soul, nature of sin, and salvation. His writings influenced theology and philosophy for over a thousand years, including early modern philosophers like Descartes.
What was Augustine’s approach to faith and reason?
Augustine maintained that faith precedes understanding, expressed in his principle “fides quaerens intellectum” (faith seeking understanding). He stated he would never allow his philosophical investigations to go beyond the authority of God, emphasizing that believers should first believe, then seek to understand.
What is the concept of “divine illumination” associated with Augustine?
Divine illumination is Augustine’s epistemological theory that human understanding is only possible through divine intervention. It suggests that God illuminates the mind so it can perceive intelligible truths, similar to how light allows the eyes to see physical objects.
Who was Thomas Aquinas in medieval philosophy?
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was a Dominican friar who created an influential synthesis of Greek rationalism (particularly Aristotelian philosophy) and Christian doctrine. He is known for “Christianizing Aristotle” and placing greater emphasis on reason and argumentation in theology than his predecessors. His work eventually came to define Catholic philosophy.
What was Thomas Aquinas’s view on the relationship between philosophy and theology?
Thomas Aquinas, following Peter Damian, argued that “philosophy is the handmaiden of theology” (philosophia ancilla theologiae). This meant that while philosophy had its own domain of inquiry, it ultimately served theological purposes and should be consistent with revealed truth.
Who was Boethius and what was his significance to medieval philosophy?
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480-524 CE) was a Roman Christian philosopher whose influence was so significant that the early medieval period is sometimes called the “Boethian period.” He translated many of Aristotle’s logical works into Latin and wrote commentaries on them, introducing philosophical problems like universals to the medieval world. His translations and commentaries were crucial in preserving Greek philosophical thought for the Middle Ages.
What were the primary characteristics of medieval philosophy?
Medieval philosophy was characterized by: 1) The use of logic and analysis to discover truth (ratio); 2) Respect for ancient philosophers, especially Aristotle (auctoritas); 3) The obligation to coordinate philosophical insights with theological teaching (concordia); and 4) A heavy emphasis on theological questions and their philosophical implications.
What was Scholasticism?
Scholasticism was the dominant method of teaching and learning in medieval universities from about the 12th to the 16th century. It emphasized dialectical reasoning and the reconciliation of authorities, particularly in addressing theological problems. The method involved presenting and analyzing arguments for and against propositions.
What was the medieval debate concerning faith and reason?
The faith versus reason debate centered on whether and how much philosophical reasoning should be used in understanding theological truths. Positions ranged from Augustine’s view that one must “believe in order to understand,” to Aquinas’s attempt to prove some religious truths through reason alone, to thinkers like Avicenna and Averroes who placed greater emphasis on reason’s independence.
What was the problem of universals in medieval philosophy?
The problem of universals addresses the question of whether general categories (like “humanity”) exist in reality or are merely concepts in the mind. Medieval positions included realism (universals exist independently of minds), nominalism (universals are just names for collections of particulars), and conceptualism (universals exist as concepts in the mind).
What was the medieval view of cosmic order?
The medieval cosmos was seen as a hierarchical, well-ordered system. Physical bodies had their “kindly stede” (natural place) toward which they naturally inclined. Unlike modern views based on evolution and development, medieval thinkers believed that perfect things preceded imperfect things. The universe was perceived as a complete, ordered whole designed by God.
What was Neoplatonism in medieval philosophy?
Neoplatonism was a philosophical tradition that viewed God (or the One) as the ultimate reality, with matter being the absence of divine light. It influenced medieval thought through figures like Augustine and Boethius, emphasizing a hierarchical universe emanating from a transcendent One and the soul’s journey toward reunion with this divine source.
What was Epicureanism in medieval philosophy?
Epicureanism taught that pleasure (or the absence of pain) is the highest good, and that at death our soul atoms disperse. Though often misunderstood and criticized by medieval Christian thinkers as hedonistic, aspects of Epicurean thought influenced discussions of happiness and the good life in medieval philosophy.
What was Mysticism in medieval philosophy?
Mysticism referred to religious movements involving direct experience or merger with God. In medieval philosophy, mystical traditions developed alongside more rational approaches, with various thinkers emphasizing direct spiritual knowledge beyond rational comprehension.
What was the medieval Trivium?
The Trivium was the lower division of the seven liberal arts, consisting of grammar, logic, and rhetoric. These subjects formed the foundation of medieval education, teaching students how to properly express, analyze, and persuade through language. The Trivium prepared students for the more advanced Quadrivium.
What was the medieval Quadrivium?
The Quadrivium was the upper division of the seven liberal arts, consisting of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. These mathematical subjects were studied after the Trivium and represented the harmony of the universe through number and proportion. Together with the Trivium, they prepared students for the study of philosophy and theology.
Czyny, nie słowa.
“Acta non verba.” (Deeds, not words.) A Latin maxim emphasizing the importance of actions over mere talk. While not specifically attributed to a medieval philosopher, this principle was consistent with medieval emphasis on virtuous action.
Miłość zwycięża wszystko.
“Amor vincit omnia.” (Love conquers all.) This phrase, originally from Virgil’s Eclogues, was incorporated into medieval thought, particularly in courtly love literature and in religious contexts regarding divine love.
Odważyć się to czynić.
“Audere est facere.” (To dare is to do.) A Latin motto emphasizing the connection between courage and action, reflecting the medieval value of virtuous deeds.
Słowa ulatują, pismo pozostaje.
“Verba volant, scripta manent.” (Words fly away, writings remain.) This Latin proverb underscores the permanence of written wisdom compared to spoken words, reflecting medieval reverence for authoritative texts.
Pióro jest silniejsze niż miecz.
“Calamus gladio fortior.” (The pen is mightier than the sword.) This phrase reflects the medieval recognition of intellectual power alongside martial power, particularly relevant in an era when scholars and clerics wielded significant influence.
Jeśli się mylę, to jestem.
“Si fallor, sum.” (If I err, I exist.) This statement by Augustine of Hippo predates Descartes’ famous “cogito ergo sum” and similarly establishes certainty of one’s existence through the act of thinking, even if that thinking is mistaken.
Who was Arthur Schopenhauer and what years did he live?
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) was a German 19th century philosopher known for his pessimistic worldview and his major work “The World as Will and Representation.”
What was Schopenhauer’s daily routine?
Schopenhauer followed a strict daily routine for 27 years: up at seven, bath, coffee, write till midday, flute practice, lunch at the inn, read at home till four, daily walk, library, concert or theatre, then home early to bed.
What was Schopenhauer’s main philosophical work?
“The World as Will and Representation” (Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung)
What Eastern philosophy influenced Schopenhauer?
Buddhism - his work is considered a Western interpretation of Buddhist enlightened pessimism, particularly as a reaction to the cycle of desire.
What is Schopenhauer’s concept of “Will-to-Life”?
Schopenhauer’s “Will-to-Life” (Wille zum Leben) is a constant force that makes humans focus on sex and reproduction. He believed this force operates independently of our intellect, making us focus on reproducing even against our rational interests.
What was Schopenhauer’s view on love?
“Love is a trick of nature designed to ensure the reproduction of the species. Any higher feelings are illusory.”
What did Schopenhauer believe about happiness?
Schopenhauer believed humans do not exist to be happy. He saw life as a history of suffering and thought it would have been better not to have been born.
What were Schopenhauer’s two solutions to the problems of existence?
1) Become a monk or “sage”: overcome desires, live alone, never marry, quell appetite for fame and status. 2) Spend as much time as possible with art and philosophy (aesthetic contemplation) to temporarily escape the cycle of striving.
Who was Friedrich Nietzsche and what years did he live?
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was a German philosopher known for concepts such as the “Übermensch” (Superman), “will to power,” “eternal recurrence,” and the declaration “God is dead.”
What is Friedrich Nietzsche’s concept of “Übermensch”?
The “Übermensch” (Superman or Overman) is Nietzsche’s ideal of a superior human who has overcome conventional Christian morality and creates their own values based on the affirmation of life.
Who was Søren Kierkegaard and what philosophical movement is he associated with?
Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) was a Danish philosopher considered the father of existentialism. He emphasized individual existence, freedom, and choice.
What are the three stages of life according to Kierkegaard?
The aesthetic stage (pursuit of pleasure), the ethical stage (commitment to duty and social norms), and the religious stage (personal relationship with God).
Who was Karl Marx and what was his main contribution to philosophy?
Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a German philosopher, economist, and political theorist who developed the theory of historical materialism and critique of capitalism. His works “The Communist Manifesto” and “Das Kapital” profoundly influenced politics and economics.
What is “dialectical materialism”?
Dialectical materialism is a philosophy developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that applies Hegelian dialectics to the material world, arguing that economic conditions and class struggles drive historical development.
Who was John Stuart Mill and what ethical theory is he associated with?
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was an English philosopher and political economist who is a central figure in utilitarianism. He argued that actions are right insofar as they promote happiness and wrong as they produce unhappiness, with a focus on the quality of pleasures, not just quantity.
Who was Jean-Paul Sartre and what philosophical movement is he associated with?
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) was a French philosopher, playwright, and novelist who was a key figure in existentialism. He believed that “existence precedes essence,” meaning humans first exist and then define themselves through their choices and actions.
What is Simone de Beauvoir known for?
Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986) was a French existentialist philosopher and feminist theorist best known for “The Second Sex” (1949), a foundational work of modern feminism. Her famous quote “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman” highlights her view that female identity is socially constructed.
Who was Ludwig Wittgenstein and what were his two major philosophical phases?
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) was an Austrian-British philosopher who worked primarily in logic, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of language. His early work (“Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus”) focused on the logical structure of language and the world, while his later work (“Philosophical Investigations”) rejected his earlier views and focused on how language functions in social contexts.
What is Michel Foucault’s concept of “power-knowledge”?
Michel Foucault (1926-1984) developed the concept of “power-knowledge,” arguing that power and knowledge are interconnected. Those who have power control what counts as knowledge, and those who control knowledge have power. This relationship shapes social institutions and practices.
What is Jacques Derrida’s concept of “deconstruction”?
Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) developed deconstruction as a method of critical analysis that challenges binary oppositions in texts and reveals hidden assumptions and contradictions. It questions the idea that language can directly represent reality.
Who is Jürgen Habermas and what is his theory of communicative action?
Jürgen Habermas (born 1929) is a German philosopher and sociologist associated with the Frankfurt School. His theory of communicative action argues that the primary purpose of communication is to reach mutual understanding, and that ideal communication requires certain conditions of freedom and equality.
Who is Martha Nussbaum and what is her capabilities approach?
Martha Nussbaum (born 1947) is an American philosopher who developed the capabilities approach to welfare economics. This approach focuses on the freedom individuals have to achieve the kinds of lives they value, rather than just economic metrics like GDP.
Who is Peter Singer and what ethical position is he known for?
Peter Singer (born 1946) is an Australian moral philosopher known for his advocacy of utilitarianism and effective altruism. He argues that we should act to maximize overall happiness and reduce suffering, which includes considering the interests of non-human animals.
Who is Hannah Arendt and what is she known for?
Hannah Arendt (1906-1975) was a German-American political theorist known for her analysis of totalitarianism, her concept of “the banality of evil” developed after observing Adolf Eichmann’s trial, and her explorations of freedom, authority, and the nature of political action.
Who is Slavoj Žižek and what philosophical traditions influence his work?
Slavoj Žižek (born 1949) is a Slovenian philosopher whose work integrates Hegelian idealism, Marxism, and Lacanian psychoanalysis. He is known for his critique of capitalism, ideology critique, and analysis of popular culture as a window into ideological formations.
What is Existentialism?
Phenomenology is the philosophical study of the structures of experience and consciousness. Founded by Edmund Husserl in the early 20th century, it focuses on the study of phenomena as they appear in our experience, setting aside questions of their external reality. Martin Heidegger, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Jean-Paul Sartre developed this approach further.
What is Pragmatism?
Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that began in the United States around 1870. It holds that the meaning and truth of ideas should be evaluated by their practical consequences. Key figures include Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey.
What is Analytic Philosophy?
Analytic Philosophy is a style of philosophy that emerged in the early 20th century, focusing on clarity, precision, and linguistic analysis. It emphasizes logical analysis and language as central to philosophical method. Key figures include Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and G.E. Moore.
What is Positivism?
Positivism is a philosophical system recognizing only observable phenomena and empirical facts as valid knowledge. Developed by Auguste Comte in the early 19th century, it holds that metaphysical and theological stages of thought are less developed than the scientific or “positive” stage.
What is Post-structuralism?
Post-structuralism is a philosophical movement that developed in the late 20th century as a response to structuralism. It challenges the idea that systems have definable underlying structures and questions the binary oppositions that structure thought. Key figures include Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Gilles Deleuze.
What is Critical Theory?
Critical Theory is a philosophical approach that seeks to critique and change society, not just understand it. Originating with the Frankfurt School in the 1930s, it combines Marxist ideas with other disciplines like psychoanalysis. Key figures include Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and later Jürgen Habermas.
“Człowiek jest skazany na wolność.”
“L’homme est condamné à être libre.” “Man is condemned to be free.” ~Jean-Paul Sartre
“Bóg umarł.”
“Gott ist tot.” “God is dead.” ~Friedrich Nietzsche
“Śpiesz się powoli.”
“Festina lente.” “Make haste slowly.” ~Latin oxymoron adopted as a Polish proverb
