Philosophical Terms

Question 1

Consequentialism

Answer 1

The doctrine that the morality of an action is to be judged solely by its consequences.

Question 2

Utilitarianism

Answer 2

A form of consequentilism.
The doctrine that actions are right if they are useful or for the benefit of a majority.
The doctrine that an action is right in so far as it promotes happiness, and that the greatest happiness of the greatest number should be the guiding principle of conduct.

Question 3

Virtue ethics

Answer 3

emphasizes the role of one’s character and the virtues that one’s character embodies for determining or evaluating ethical behavior. Contrasts with consequentialism.

Question 4

Deontology

Answer 4

The right is prior to the good.

Is one of those kinds of normative theories regarding which choices are morally required, forbidden, or permitted.
It is a moral theories that guide and assess our choices of

It judges the morality of an action based on the action’s adherence to a rule or rules.

It is sometimes described as “duty” or “obligation” or “rule”-based ethics, because rules “bind you to your duty.”

Stand in opposition to consequentialists.

Question 5

Particularism

Answer 5

At it’s strongest the view that there are no true moral principles. In the weaker form that moral judgement and decisions ‘don’t depend on the provision of a suitable supply of moral principles.’ Actions are right according to particular features of particular cases.

Question 6

Atomism

Answer 6

A reason for x is always a reason for an action/inaction no matter the situation.

Question 7

Holism

Answer 7

A reason for x is NOT always a reason for an action/inaction. Reasons are context sensitive.

Question 8

Side constraints

Answer 8

Reflect the Kantian idea that people should be treated as ends and not merely means. Therefore the angry mob shouldn’t be placated.

Question 9

Teological

Answer 9

Goal directed views

Question 10

Moral absolutism

Answer 10

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Question 11

Moral relativism

Answer 11

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Question 12

The categorical imperative

Answer 12

a) Universal Law:
“Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it becomes a universal law.”
b) Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, never simply as a means but always at the same time as an end.

Question 13

Maxims

Answer 13

An agent’s policy or intention. An active thought/decision process in opposition with inclinations. Always contain a goal which is often the result of intention.

Question 14

Kantian ethics

Answer 14

A deontological ethical theory ascribed to the German philosopher Immanuel Kant.

Question 15

Virtue

Answer 15

Excellence at being human. Must be learnt and practiced. In between the deficiency and excess of a feature

We are capable of both theoretical reasoning (virtues of intellect)

And practical reasoning (virtues of character).

Question 16

Eudaemonia

Answer 16

Happiness: flourishing, the best kind of life for human beings. The goal in life for it’s own sake - an end not a means.
The Eudaimon life is the life active in accordance with complete virtue (exercising reason excellently; the fully rational life)

Question 17

Practical wisdom

Answer 17

Prudence, or practical wisdom, guides us in the correct manner of action. This intellectual virtue, which is closely tied to the rational deliberation and choice necessary to the moral virtues - intellectual virtue as it has to be taught. Being fully virtuous = having practical wisdom

Question 18

Theoretical wisdom

Answer 18

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Question 19

Aristotle’s function argument

Answer 19

The function of a human is to exercise reason.

Question 20

Absolute principles

Answer 20

Any action that is xxx is morally right/wrong

Question 21

Contributory principles

Answer 21

Specify things that always count for / against actions.

Question 22

Normative reasons

Answer 22

Facts that count in favour of believing or doing something.

Question 23

Explanatory reasons

Answer 23

Facts that explain why something happened or is the case. e.g. Motivating reason

Question 24

Epistemic reason

Answer 24

Matters of fact and/or explanation.

Question 25

Practical reason

Answer 25

A complex capacity to think about one’s options and decide what to do.
Practical reason is the general human capacity for resolving, through reflection, the question of what one is to do

Question 26

The good will

Answer 26

Nothing other than good will is good without qualification. The basic idea is that what makes a good person good is his possession of a will that is in a certain way ‘determined’ by, or makes its decisions on the basis of, the moral law. The idea of a good will is supposed to be the idea of one who only makes decisions that she holds to be morally worthy, taking moral considerations in themselves to be conclusive reasons for guiding her behavior.

Question 27

Ethical egoism

Answer 27

an action is morally right if the consequences of the action are more favorable than unfavorable only to the moral agent performing the action.

Question 28

Ethical altruism

Answer 28

an action is morally right if the consequences of the action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the moral agent.

Question 29

Ethical Utilitarianism

Answer 29

an action is morally right if the consequences of the action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone.

Question 30

Act consequentialism

Answer 30

argues that the morality of any action is dependent upon its consequences. Thus, the most moral action is the one which leads to the best consequences.

Question 31

Rule consequentialism

Answer 31

argues that focusing only on the consequences of the action in question can lead people to committing outrageous actions when they foresee good consequences. Thus, rule-consequentialists add the following provision: imagine that an action were to become a general rule - if the following of such a rule would result in bad consequences, then it should be avoided even if it would lead to good consequences in this one instance. This has very obvious similarities to Kant’s categorical imperative, a deontological moral principle.

Question 32

Speculative reason

Answer 32

Theoretical as opposed to practical reason. Speculative reason is contemplative, detached, and certain, whereas practical reason is engaged, involved, active, and dependent upon the specifics of the situation. Speculative reason provides the universal, necessary principles of logic, such as the principle of non-contradiction, which must apply everywhere, regardless of the specifics of the situation.

Question 33

A priori feelings

Answer 33

The feeling of respect for the moral law. This feeling is somehow based on pure reason.

Question 34

The function of reason argument

Answer 34

1. Organs in nature are always best fitted to their end.
2. Reason is not best fitted to the end of happiness

[instinct would be better – those excessively preoccupied with the life of the mind are generally less happy than “the common run of people.”]

So happiness is not the end of reason.

Question 35

Hypothetical imperative

Answer 35

• If you set yourself a goal (of winning a game) and you believe something is an indispensible means to that goal (practicing) then unless you take the means or give up the goal you are irrational.
• Hypothetical imperatives always rationally give you options : either
  a) you can either give up the goal
  b) take the means.

Hypothetical imperatives as such are not moral. If you make it your end to make someone jealous, and using someone else as a mere means is a necessary means to that end, then this is enough for a hypothetical imperative to apply.

Question 36

Perfect duty

Answer 36

Kant says we have a perfect duty not to act in ways resulting in logical or practical contradictions when universalised.
For example, we have a perfect duty not to steal, since the maxim “It is permissible to steal” is contradictory as universal law. The notion of stealing presupposes that of property, but were stealing common practise, there could be no property. The proposition annihilates itself; it leads to a contradiction.

Question 37

Imperfect duty

Answer 37

Second, we have imperfect duty, which is the duty to act only by maxims that we would desire to be universalized.

For example, if you thought the world would be a better place if everyone gave to charity, you have an imperfect duty to do so yourself …. even though a world where the maxim of stinginess were universal law isn’t contradictory. Since imperfect duty depends somewhat on the subjective preferences of humankind, it is not as strong as a perfect duty, but it is still morally binding.

Question 38

Normative ethics

Answer 38

Normative Ethics aims to give an account of right and wrong action, to answer the question “How should I act?” (and sometimes also “How should I live?”)

Aims to give an account of which actions are right/wrong; and why they are right/wrong;

Most normative ethics is about coming up with a systematic theory arguing for ultimate criteria for rightness, wrongness and permissibility

Question 39

Aristotelian Virtue Ethics

Answer 39

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Question 40

Moral particularism

Answer 40

There are no true moral principles. What makes right actions right? Particular features of the particular case. Moral thought and judgement does not depend upon the provision of a suitable supply of moral principles.

Question 41

Moral generalism

Answer 41

Moral thought and judgement depends upon the provision of a suitable supply of moral principles.

Question 42

Determinism

Answer 42

the philosophical position that for every event, including human action, there exist conditions that could cause no other event.