Pharmacology Flashcards
What is pharmacokinetics?
The absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination of substances from a biological system
What enzyme is responsible for most metabolism of drugs?
Cytochrome P450 - expressed in liver, intestines, kidneys and brain
What is microbial metabolism?
Microbiome and host metabolism converting phenolics into smaller metabolites that reach systemic circulation that may return to the GIT to be further metabolised
What is reinforcement in terms of herbal synergy?
Herbs used together produces greater efficacy
What is potentiation in terms of herbal synergy?
One herb is the principal herb in the mix, which another herb is an adjunct herb
What is restraint and detoxification in terms of herbal synergy?
Where a potentially toxic herb is combined with another herb to offset or mitigate the toxicity
What is counteraction in terms of herbal synergy?
Where an action of one herb is diminished by another herb
e.g. Raphanus sativus (radish) seed weakens the effect of Panax ginseng
What is pharmacodynamics?
The mechanism of action of a medicinal substance on a biological system
List 2 cellular defence pathways
Nrf2, NF-kB
Define inverse agonist
Causes target to do the opposite of its usual function
What is the 6 tissue state model?
Assesses states of:
Metabolism: hot to col
Internal moisture: damp to dry
Tissue tone: tense to relaxed
What is one example of a heating remedy?
Ginger - stimulates vanilloid receptor mediated noradrenaline release -> increase uncoupling protein 1 activity -> increases mitochondrial energy expenditure -> thermogenesis
What is hormesis?
The adaptive response to stress.
Each organism has an individual capacity to respond, and given sufficient stress intensity, can be overwhelmed
What does mild stress in the hormetic zone induce?
A beneficial adaptive response - eg increase in anti-oxidant activity in a plant
What is allostatic load?
The load produced by survival activities which organisms use to maintain homeostasis, including obtaining food, reproducing, and adapting to unexpected stress
Allostatic load prompts adaptation to stress on cellular and systemic levels
What is a chemotype?
The same botanical species but producing a different phytochemical profile
What are the two types of plant metabolites?
Primary - molecules that plants depend on to exist
Secondary - produced by plants as needed for survival
What are examples of primary metabolites?
Macronutrients, enzymes, nucleic acids, vitamins, chlorophyll
What are examples of secondary metabolites?
Terpenoids, sterols, saponins, flavonoids, anthocyanins, iridoids, tannins, phenolic acids
Which biosynthetic pathways produce primary metabolites?
MVA - mevalonic acid
MEP - methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate
Shikimic acid
Acetate and glutamate via krebs cycle
Which biosynthetic pathways create secondary metabolites?
MVA
MEP
Terpenoid
Shikimic acid
Phenylpropanoid
Polyketide
What does the shikimic acid pathway produce?
amino acid precursors
What does the MVA and MEP pathways produce?
precursor molecules to the terpenoids
What does the terpenoid pathway produce?
molecules with 5 carbons and beta-carotene
What does the phenylpropanoid pathway produce?
Precursors to larger phenolics like flavonoids and anthocyanins
What does the polyketide pathway produce?
Condenses acetyl units to form stilbenes, xanthones and anthraquinones
What does glycosylation involve?
Adding a sugar molecule to secondary metabolites
eg. saponins are triterpenoid glycosides
Involves betaglycosidic bonds that resist human digestive enzymes
What are decorations?
Prenylation (addition of isopentene), methylation (addition of methyl), acetylation
What is polymerisation?
eg dimers, trimers, tetramers
Depsides (phenolic polymers)
Condensed tannins (flavanol polymers) -> AKA proanthocyanidins)
What are compound molecules?
Complex tannins - combinations of flavonoids with ellagic and/or gallic acid
Terpenophenols (cannabinoids) - combo of polyketide and monoterpenoid
What is a standardised extract?
one that is: “manufactured to contain a consistent level of one or more phytochemical constituents which are derived from the original starting material.”
What type of bond is C-H?
non-polar covalent bond
What type of bond is C-O?
polar covalent bond
What type of bond is O-H bond?
polar covalent bond
Two solvents used in herbal manufacturing
Hexane - no oxygen present, non-polar
Oleic acid - fatty acid, contains oxygen and a polar end
What polarity is hypericin and what plant is it from?
Hypericum perforatum (st johns wort)
Naphthodianthrone
Non-polar
Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, anti-oxidant (scavenges free radicals)
What polarity and class is pseudohypericin and what plant is it from?
Non polar
Naphthodianthrone
St johns wort
What polarity and class is hyperforin and what plant is it from?
What is its main action?
Non-polar
Naphthodianthrone
St johns wort - hypericum perforatum
Anti-depressant - reduces uptake of serotonin and dopamine
Neuroprotective - neurogenesis
Anti-inflammatory - COX inhibitor
What polarity and class is rutin?
Flavonoid
Polar
Found in crataegus monogyna (hawthorn berries)
What polarity is DHA? where is it found?
non-polar lipid
algae and animal products
What class and polarity is glycyrrhizin?
A saponin from Glycyrrhiza glabra (liquorice)
Balanced non-polar and polar (amphipathic)
What class and polarity is hyperoside and what plant is it found in?
More polar than non-polar, but dissolves best in an ethanol/water mix (amphipathic)
Flavonoid
St johns wort
What class and polarity is caffeine and what plant is it found in?
Alkaloid
Polar
Coffea arabica (coffee) and Camellia sinensis (tea)
How does Nrf2 activation help in protecting against toxicity?
Nrf2 activation protects cells against oxidative stress and inflammation
What happens when oxidative stress exceeds a certain level?
Excessive oxidative stress induces an inflammatory response, and if it is even higher, it leads to apoptosis (cell death).
What effect does mild to moderate oxidative stress have on Nrf2?
Mild to moderate oxidative stress induces the Nrf2 response, which helps to mitigate the stress before inflammation or apoptosis occur.
What pathway is activated by oxidative stress to protect cells?
The KEAP1-Nrf2-ARE pathway
What happens when oxidative stress activates KEAP1?
KEAP1 activation causes the release of Nrf2, which then travels to the nucleus to bind with ARE (antioxidant response elements).
The binding activates ARE, which initiates the expression of proteins that help the cell better handle oxidative stress.
What does Nrf2 stand for?
Nuclear factor erythroid 2-like factor 2
What is Quercetin?
A flavonoid and phenolic phytochemical
What is the major action of antioxidant phytochemicals like Quercetin?
The activation of the Nrf2 pathway
Name some antioxidant herbs.
Bacopa, Bilberry, Cats Claw, Chaparral, Elderberry, Garlic, Ginkgo, Grapeseed, Green Tea, Hawthorn Leaf and Berry, Olive Leaf, Oregano, Rhodiola, and Rosemary.
What is the role of Ginkgo as an antioxidant?
Ginkgo primarily supports the nervous system.
What is the role of Rosemary as an antioxidant?
Rosemary supports the nervous system
What is Naringin?
A flavonoid that exerts hepatoprotective through activation of the Nrf2 pathway (protection against oxidative stress) and downregulation of the NF-kB pathway (reducing inflammation)
How does Naringin protect the liver?
Activates the Nrf2 pathway, reducing liver cell death and decreasing the leakage of liver enzymes (ALP, ALT) into the blood.
What is a neuro-trophorestorative?
Triggers signalling pathways in the cell to help them grow, divide and repair
Can promote restorative action in tissues
Five risks of toxicity during pregnancy:
Toxicity to the mother which can indirectly affect the foetus
Toxicity to the foetus
Teratogenesis (malformations)
Increased risk of miscarriage
Poor neonatal health
Pregnancy categories TGA
A - human evidence, safe
B1 - limited human evidence, animal evidence, save
B2 - limited human evidence, limited animal evidence, safe
B3 - limited human evidence, safe, animal evidence unsafe
C - not safe, may harm neonate but no malformations
D - not safe, evidence of malformations
X - not safe, high risk of permanent damage, contraindicated in all stages of pregnancy
Lactation categories
ND - no data
C - compatable with breast feeding
CC - compatible but use caution
SD - strongly discouraged
X - contraindicated
What is a practitioner only product?
No claim of therapeutic activity on the product label
Must have label attached for personalised dosage instructions
Cannot be casually available to the public
What is a product for Extemporaneous Dispensing?
Must be formulated and dispensed after a consultation
Cannot be pre-made in anticipation of people coming in and needing that product
eg Fluid Extracts
What group do the majority of essential oils belong to?
Phenylpropanoids or terpenoids
What are the 4 pathways essential oils are produced through?
MVA, MEP
Terpenoid
Phenylpropanoid
Lipid derivatives
What are 3 things plants use volatile oils for?
Defence
Communication with other plants
Attraction of polinators
What is the absorption of EE’s like?
Variable across skin, extensive orally
What is the distribution of EE’s like?
Accumulation of toxic constituents possible
eg thuja oil causes seizure after 20 drops daily for 5 days
What is the metabolism of EE’s like??
Extensive phase I and II
What is the elimination of EEs like?
Mostly via kidneys as water soluble metabolites, then GI elimination
Small amounts of unmetabolised EE are eliminated via the lungs
What 3 main actions are EEs?
Carminitive, spasmolytic and antimicrobial
What is the structure of a phenylpropanoid?
6 member benzene ring (phenyl group) attached to propane chain (C3H8)
What essential oils are phenylpropanoids?
Cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, elemicin
What essential oils are terpenoids?
Menthol, thymol, linalool, citronellal
What is a carminitive?
A substance that relieves flatulence and soothes intestinal spasm and pain, by relaxing intestinal mucsle and sphincters
What is a spasmolytic?
A substance that reduces or relieves smooth muscle spasm
How do essential oils reduce smooth muscle spasm?
Essential oils increase the activity of cyclic AMP (cAMP), decrease intracellular calcium (Ca2+) and decrease intracellular potassium (K+) which together decrease the contractility of smooth muscle
4 causes of IBS
- enhanced visceral perception
- low grade inflammation
- altered GIT motility
- Dysbiosis
What factors contribute to the pathogenesis of IBS?
Dysbiosis, increased intestinal permeability, altered signalling in enteric cells, sensitisation of the enteric nervous system, impaired bile acid metabolism and function
What is the mechanism of visceral hypersensitivity in IBS?
Pro-nociceptive signalling in the enteric NS activates transient receptor potential receptors like TRPV1 and 4 (vanilloid 1 and 4), serotonin (5-HT) and histamine
How does mentha x piperita (peppermint) help IBS?
Calcium channel blockade antagonises cholinergic and serotonergic signalling
It also: Reduces inflammation, influences the microbiome, alters sensitivity of git mucosa through transient receptor potential ion channels
anti-emetic, analgesic, antibacterial, antifungal, carminative
Contains menthol - flavonoid (terpenoid)
What two plants contain carvacrol and thymol?
Thymus vulgaris
Origanum vulgare
What plant contains arbutin and what is it?
Bearberry
A phenolic glycoside (glucose + hydroquinone) that undergoes hydrolysis to release hydroquinone that is antimicrobial - particularly in the urinary tract
What action does Cinnamonum verum have?
antifungal - cinnamaldehyde
Disruption of cell membrane structure, synthesis and function
4 Bacterial virulence factors
- Quorum sensing - bacterial comms using signalling molecules
- Biofilm - colonies protected by ECM
- Movement - form adhesive structures and flagella
- Metabolites - lipopolysaccharides, pigments, cell lysing molecules cause host cell destruction
Anthelmintic mechanisms
Paralysis and death of helminth - acetylcholinesterase inhibition
Damage cells - denature proteins
Disrupt reproduction - inhibit cell division, interefere with larval transformation from egg
Interfere with physiology - inhibit antioxidant enzymes
2 herbs that are anthelmintic
Artemisia absinthium (wormwood)
Andrographis paniculata
Artemisia absinthium (wormwood) MOA
EE contains thujone that causes helminth paralysis
Sesquiterpenes inhibit neurotransmission causing paralysis
Andrographis paniculata active consituent
Diterpene lactones (andrographolides)
Immune enhancing
2 pathways herbs act upon to reduce anxiety
Neurotransmission - GABA, serotontin, dopamine, noradrenaline, opioid signalling
Stress response modulation - balance HPA axis to reduce adrenaline and cortisol
Key signalling pathway in anxiolytic herbs
GABA pathway
Voltage gated calcium channels also play a role
Herbs for anxiety and their active constituents
Lavandula angustifolia - linalool
Matricaria recutita (chamomile) - flavanoids and apigenin and GABAergic
Piper methysticum (kava) - kavalactones
What do flavonoids do?
Protect plants from UV, regulate hormones and attract polinators
Antioxidant
Isoflavones (subgroup) are phytoestrogenic
5 examples of flavonoids
Quercetin - Ginkgo biloba
Luteolin
Rutin - Crataegus monogyna
Chrysin - Passiflora incarnata
Hyperoside - Crataegus monogyna
Crataegus monogyna - hawthorn berries
Structure of flavonoids
3 rings
Classified on their functional groups in the C ring (middle one)
What polarity are flavonoids?
With increasing levels of hydroxylation and glycoslyation are more hydrophilic
Extracted with 25-45% ehtanol
What is the absorption of flavonoids?
Flavonoid glycosides may undergo active transport with SGLT1
Otherwise host and microbiome liberate flavanoid itself and it is passively diffused
The absorbed glycosides encounter cytosolic betaglucosidases for deglycosylation
Metabolism of Chrysin (flavonoid) and plants it is found in
Hydroxylation via phase I enzymes (CYP450s)
Glucuronidation and sulfation via phase II enzymes
Found in passionflower, chamomile (passiflora incarnata and matricaria chamomilla) and is anxiolytic and anti-inflammatory
What flavonoid produces phenolic breakdown products that can be absorbed and have an effect?
hesperitin - during breakdown by human and microbial enzymes creates phenolic breakdown products
What actions are flavonoids?
Antioxidant
Antiinflammatory
Tissue protective - cardiovascular, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, topical wound healing, cancer protective
4 types of resins
oleoresins - resin + EE
Gum resins - resin + gum
Oleo-gum-resin
Balsams - cinnamic acid and its esters
Polarity of resins
lipophilic
Action of resins
antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and vulnerary
the pathways that create the molecules in resins:
Sikimic acid
Terpenoid
Polyketide
Flavonoid
Polymerisation and compound molecules
Resinous phytochemicals that are commonly encountered:
Triterpenoids
Gingeroids and Curcuminoids (polyketides)
Cannabinoids (terpenophenols)
Capsaicinoids (alkaloids)
ethanol concentration to extract resins
65-90%
Insoluble in water and hexane
Sources of resins
Boswellia serrata (frankincense) - boswellic acids
Canniabis spp. - terpenophenols
Cucurma longa - curcuminoids
Propolis
Zingiber officinale (ginger) - gingeroids
Activation of the immune response:
Tissue damage (infectious or sterile) causes PAMPs and DAMPs to bind to pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that cause an inflammatory immune response
Resolution-associated molecular patterns (RAMPs) and specific pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) reduce inflammation
m1 vs m2 macrophages
M1 - pro-inflammatory
M2 - pro-resolution
Describe the mitochondrial Dysfunction and Cell Injury Pathway
- Cell injury and mitochondrial dysfunction cause activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, and the release of DAMPs
- DAMPs activate an immune response via activation of toll-like receptors (TLRs) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signalling
- Interferons and interleukins are released which cause an immune response
What are specialised pro-resolving mediators derived from?
both omega-6 (arachidonic acid) and omega-3 (EPA, DHA) essential fatty acids
SPMs exert their actions via specific pro-resolving G protein-coupled receptors on polymorphonuclear cells and cells local to tissues.
4 mechanisms associated with inflammation resolution
Reduced endothelial activation
- Dampened neutrophil recruitment
- Neutrophil apoptosis
- Macrophage efferocytosis
What is the NLRP3 inflammasome? What is it reduced by?
A protein complex which regulates inflammation
Activated by PAMPs and DAMPs
Phytochemicals (e.g. flavonoids and resins) and other substances can reduce factors which activate NLRP3, including reducing oxidative stress, thereby reducing inflammation.
What are sirtuins and what do they do?
Influence inflammation by
- Regulating transcription factors (e.g. NF-κB)
- Modulating cytokine production (e.g. interleukins)
- Influencing immune cell function (e.g. proliferation of T cells)
- Regulating inflammasome activity (e.g. NLRP3)
- Regulating mitochondrial function (dysfunctional mitochondria trigger inflammation).
What can sirtuins be regulated by?
Phytochemicals including flavonoids and stilbenes
3 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms
Downregulation of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB)
Inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX)
Regulating Sirtuin activity, in turn regulating inflammatory transcription factors and enzymes.
Physiology of nausea and vomiting
Coordinated response between:
- An area of sensory nerve cells called the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ), located in the floor of the fourth ventricle of the brain
- The vomiting centre, or emetic centre, located in the medulla
What can stimulate the ctz?
- sense of smell
- severe pain
- strong emotion
- motion sickness
- raised intracranial pressure
- endocrine disturbances
- gastrointestinal disease
- toxic reactions to drugs
- chemotherapy and radiotherapy
Pathway from CTZ to nausea
- The CTZ sends input to the emetic centre through the neurotransmitters acetylcholine (ACh), serotonin (5-HT), histamine (H) and dopamine (DA).
- Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems activated
- Salivation, sweating, rapid breathing and cardiac dysrhythmias.
How do anti-emetics work? What are the classes of drugs?
By blocking neurotransmission in the CTZ, the vomiting centre, vestibular apparatus, and/or the cerebral cortex
Dopamine antagonists, anticholinergics (antimuscarinics), antihistamines and neurokinin-1 (NK1) receptor antagonists are the most used classes of drugs as antiemetics
How is zingiber officinale anti-emetic?
Oleoresin of ginger contains phenylpropanoid derivatives, gingerols and shogaols, and sesquiterpenes (zingiberene)
Gingerols are antagonists of 5-HT3 in the CNS and GIT, reducing vomiting response
The oleoresin is also anticholinergic and antihistamine, and inhibits substance P and NK1 receptor expression
Contributing factors of hypertension
- Sympathetic nervous system activation (stress), endothelial response, sodium and water retention, and inflammation
- RAAS -> endothelial dysfunction, salt sensitivity, vascular injury
- Endothelium -> responsible for vascular tone, salt sensitivity and NO release to decrease BP
- SNS -> activates, catecholamine release, increase renal sympathetic activity, increase sodium avidity and BP increases
Antihypertensive / hypotensive mechanism of herbs:
- Balancing stress response,
- Balancing inflammatory cascade (prostaglandins and decreasing inflammatory markers),
- Increased NO availability
- Increased cellular antioxidants
- Inhibits ACE
- Decreased angiotensin II
- All reduce oxidative stress, enhance vasodilation or decrease vasoconstriction to assist with hypertension
How does Crataegus monogyna (hawthorn) assist with hypertension
Cardioprotective flanonoids:
reduce BP - enhance NO production
What would be a target for reducing inflammation?
NF-kB
What is an anti-inflamatory herb?
Boswellia serrata - resin decreases NF-kB
Frankincense
What is a hepatoprotective herb and its mechanism?
Silybum marianum - st marys thistle
The silymarin (flavonoid) activates nrf2 pathway
What is an anti-emetic herb and its mechanism?
Cynara scolymus (globe artichoke leaf)
Active -> phenolic acids (cynarin)
Stimulates bitter receptors and enhances liver function
What is a neuroprotective herb and its mechanism?
Ginko biloba
Active - flavonoids (gingko-flavones) and flavonol glycosides (quercetin)
Activates nrf2 pathway to upregulate endogenous antioxidant defences
Increase BDNF
What is an anxiolytic herb and its mechanism?
Matricaria chamomilla
GABAergic
Flavonoids
Q. What is the distinguishing chemical characteristic of plant glycosides?
A. presence of glycosidic bonds. These bonds link a sugar molecule (glycone) to a non-sugar molecule (aglycone).
Q. List classes of plant secondary metabolites:
Terpenoids
Phenolics
Alkaloid
Polyketides
Flavonoids
Iridoids
Q. List classes of plant primary metabolites:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Q. Define the term “molecular decorations” as it applies to the creation of secondary metabolites in plants:
The term “molecular decorations” refers to the various chemical modifications that occur during the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in plants
Q. Summarise the purpose and organisation of the Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons (the Poisons Standard):
To provide a uniform approach to the classification, labelling, and packaging of medicines and poisons throughout Australia.
It aims to ensure that substances are made available to consumers in a manner that protects public health and safety
Q. List the requirements for Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)
A. validation of equipment and processes·
documented standard operating procedures covering every aspect of manufacture
· documented cleaning and calibration logs for equipment
· control of the manufacturing environment, air and water
· quarantining and unique identification and testing of raw
· materials, labels and packaging discrete batch identification
· comprehensive batch record documentation
· reconciliation of raw materials, product, packaging and labels
· quarantining and testing of finished products
· documented release-for-sale procedures
· testing of stability of finished product
· documentation of customer complaints and recall procedures.
Q. Define herbal medicine standardisation:
A. Herbal medicine standardisation refers to the process of ensuring batch to batch consistency in one or more phytochemical constituents or classes of constituents.
Q. List possible benefits of herbal medicine standardisation:
Consistency in the quality, safety, and efficacy of herbal products
regulatory compliance, as standardised products are more likely to meet established standards and regulations
maintaining the reliability and reproducibility of herbal medicines, which is essential for scientific research and clinical trials.
It allows researchers to accurately assess the efficacy and safety of herbal products, leading to more robust and credible findings
Q. List possible limitations of herbal medicine standardisation:
complexity and variability of herbal products. Unlike synthetic drugs, herbal medicines are composed of multiple active compounds, which can vary depending on factors such as the plant’s growing conditions, harvesting time, and processing methods
lack of comprehensive scientific data
Q. Contrast Good Manufacturing Practices with herbal medicine standardisation:
GMP is a comprehensive system that encompasses various aspects of manufacturing, including quality management, personnel, premises and equipment, documentation, production, quality control, complaints and recalls
Standardisation is simply about controlling the amount of constituents present per dose.
Q. Define herbal synergy:
Herbal synergy refers to the phenomenon where multiple herbs work together to enhance each other’s therapeutic effects, resulting in a more potent remedy than any single herb could provide on its own.
Q. Describe the pharmacokinetics of plant glycosides:
The pharmacokinetics of plant glycosides involves the study of how these compounds are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted in the body.
Absorption -> some are hydrolysed by gut microflora human enzymes
Distribution -> once hydrolysed the aglycones (actives) are lipophilic and can be absorbed or bound to plasma proteins
Metabolism -> Phase I and II
Excretion -> once hydrophilic enough, urinary excretion, or if still hydrophobic biliary excretion via GIT
essential oils primarily serves the purposes of:
[defence against microbes], and [attraction of pollinators].
Essential oils are commonly known for the herbal actions of
[carminative], and [spasmolytic].
Common safety issues or side effects of essential oils include
[high potency], and [skin sensitisation].
Examples of herbs known to contain essential oils which have these actions and safety issues are
[Mentha × piperita], and [Melissa officinalis].
Two example constituents within essential oils are:
The solubility of essential oils is in:
[menthol], and [citronellal].
[lipophilic solvents].
resins primarily serves the purposes of
[defence against microbes], and [healing of wounds].
Resins are commonly known for the herbal actions of
[antimicrobial], and [vulnerary].
Common safety issues or side effects of resins include
[dermatitis], and [GIT upset].
Examples of herbs known to contain resins which have these actions and safety issues are
[Boswellia serrata], and [Commiphora myrrha].
Two example constituents within resins are:
The solubility of resins is in:
[boswellic acids], and [mansumbinone].
[lipophilic solvents].
flavonoids primarily serves the purposes of
[attraction pollinators], and [protection from sunlight].
Flavonoids are commonly known for the herbal actions of
[antioxidant], and [tissue protective].
Common safety issues or side effects of flavonoids include
[bruising/bleeding], and [pro-oxidant at very high doses].
Examples of herbs known to contain flavonoids which have these actions and safety issues are
[Ginkgo biloba], and [Crataegus monogyna].
Two example constituents within flavonoids are:
The solubility of flavonoids is in:
[ginkgo flavones], and [quercetin].
[hydrophilic solvents].
isoflavones primarily serves the purposes of
[discouraging herbivores], and [protection from sunlight].
isoflavones are commonly known for the herbal actions of
[oestrogen modulating], and [antioxidant].
Common safety issues or side effects of isoflavones include
[pro-oxidant at very high doses], and [thyroid antagonism].
Examples of herbs known to contain isoflavones which have these actions and safety issues are
[Glycine max], and [Trifolium pratense].
Two example constituents within isoflavones are:
The solubility of isoflavones is in:
[genistein], and [formononetin].
[hydrophilic solvents].
anthraquinone glycosides primarily serves the purposes of
[discouraging herbivores], and [defence against microbes].
anthraquinone glycosides are commonly known for the herbal actions of
[stimulating laxative], and [antiviral].
Common safety issues or side effects of anthraquinone glycosides include
[dehydration], and [electrolyte imbalance].
Examples of herbs known to contain anthraquinone glycosides which have these actions and safety issues are
[Rheum palmatum], and [Senna alexandrina].
Two example constituents within anthraquinone glycosides are
[aloe-emodin-8-O-glucoside], and [sennoside A].
The solubility of anthraquinone glycosides is in
[hydrophilic solvents].
iridoid glycosides primarily serves the purposes of
[discouraging herbivores], and [defence against microbes].
iridoid glycosides are commonly known for the herbal actions of
[bitter], and [anti-inflammatory].
Common safety issues or side effects of iridoid glycosides include
[nausea], and [vomiting].
Examples of herbs known to contain iridoid glycosides which have these actions and safety issues are
[Rehmannia glutinosa], and [Harpagophytum procumbens].
Rehmannia and Devils Claw
Two example constituents within iridoid glycosides are:
The solubility of iridoid glycosides is in:
[aucubin], and [harpagoside]
[hydrophilic solvents].
aloe-emodin-8-O-glucoside class and solubility
anthroquinone glycoside
hydrophilic
sennoside A class and solubility
anthroquinone glycoside
hydrophilic
Linalool class and solubilty
essential oil - monoterpene alcohol
lipophilic
Menthol class and solubility
Essential oil - monoterpene alcohol
lipophilic
Linalyl acetate class and solubility
Essential oil - monoterpene ester
lipophilic
Thymol class and solubility
Essential oil - monoterpene phenol
lipophilic
Anethol class and solubility
Essential oil - phenylpropnaoid
lipophilic
Citronellal class and solubility
essential oil - monoterpene aldehyde
lipophilic
Apigenin class and solubility
flavonoid
hydrophilic
found in chamomile, gingko and thyme
Gingko flavones (quercetin, kaempferol)
Flavonoid
hydrophilic
cyanidin 3-O-glucoside class and solubility
Flavonoid (Anthocyanin glycoside)
Hydrophilic
Silymarin class and solubility
Flavonoid (flavanolignan)
Lipophilic/hydrophilic (needs about 50% ethanol)
Vitexin class and solubility
flavonoid glycoside
Hydrophilic
Found in passionflower, skullcap, lemon balm - apigenin+glucose
Harpagoside class and solubility
Iridoid glycoside
Hydrophobic
Anti-inflammatory - inhibits NF-kB
Analgesic - COX, LOX, Prostaglandin
Devils claw, ginseng
Aucubin class and solubility
Iridoid glycoside
Hydrophilic
Hepatoprotective - prevents oxidative stress and promotes regeneration
Less anti-inflammatory than harpagoside
Formononetin class and solubilty
Isoflavonoid
Lipophilic
Phytooestrogenic - found in soy (glycine max)
Genistein class and solubility
Isoflavonoid (flavonoid subclass)
Lipophilic
Hypercerin class and solubility
Naphthodianthrone
Lipophilic
Phenol class and solubility
Phenol
lipophilic
echinacoside class and solubility
Phenylpropanoid glycoside
Hydrophilic
Lentinan class and solubility
Polysaccharide
Hydrophilic
Kavalactones (kavain) class and solubility
Resin
Lipophilic
mansumbinone class and solubility
resin
Lipophilic
Boswellic acid class and solubility
Resin
Lipophilic
agrimoniin class and solubility
Tannin (hydrolysable)
Hydrophilic
ginkgolide B class and solubility
Terpene lactone (indicated by the many cyclic ester groups which is what a ‘lactone’ is)
hydrophilic
glycyrrhizin class and solubility
Triterpene saponin
Hydrophilic
amphipathic
What is Arctostaphylos uva-ursi used for?
Antimicrobial
Disrupts membranes
Simple phenols
What is an anti-depressant herb and its mechanism?
Hypericum perforatum
- Increase monoamine transmission - naphthodianthrones
- Reduces neuroinflammation - flavonoids (hyperoside, quercetin)
Which herb is hypotensive and what is its mechanism?
Crateagus monogyna
Increase NO
Flavonoids
What is Arctostaphylos uva-ursi and its mehcanism?
an antimicrobial simple phenol
disrupts membranes
