Pestana Chap 4 - General Surgery Flashcards
When the diagnosis of GERD is uncertain, what test should be done?
pH monitoring is best to establish the presence of reflux and its correlation with the symptoms
What is the typical case of GERD?
An overweight individual that complains of burning retrosternal pain and “heartburn” that is brought about by bending over, wearing tight clothing, or lying flat in bed at night; and relieved by the ingestion of antacids or OTC H2 blockers
What is the concern with longstanding GERD?
The concern is the damage that might have been done to the lower esophagus (peptic esophagitis) and the possible development of Barrett esophagus
What is the indicated test for longstanding GERD?
Indicated tests:
1) Endoscopy
2) Biopsies
When is surgery appropriate for GERD? When is surgery necessary for GERD? When is surgery imperative for GERD?
Surgery for GERD:
1) Is appropriate for longstanding symptomatic disease that cannot be controlled by medical means
2) Is necessary in anyone who has developed complications (ulceration, stenosis)
3) Is imperative if there are severe dysplastic changes
What is the usual surgical procedure for GERD? How is it performed? What should be added to Nissen if severe dysplastic changes are present?
1) Laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication
2) In a fundoplication, the gastric fundus (upper part) of the stomach is wrapped, or plicated, all the way 360 degrees around the lower end of the esophagus and stitched in place, reinforcing the closing function of the lower esophageal sphincter. The esophageal hiatus is also narrowed down by sutures to prevent or treat concurrent hiatal hernia, in which the fundus slides up through the enlarged esophageal hiatus of the diaphragm
3) Radiofrequency ablation should be added to Nissen if severe dysplastic changes are present
What are two common recognizable clinical patterns found with esophageal motility problems?
1) Crushing pain with swallowing in uncoordinated massive contraction
2) Suggestive pattern of dysphagia seen in achalasia, where solids are swallowed with less difficulty than liquids
What is the first test done for an esophageal motility problem? What is the test for definitive diagnosis?
1) Barium swallow is typically done first
2) Manometry studies are used for the definitive diagnosis
Is achalasia more common in men or in women?
Achalsia is seen more commonly in women
What are common clinical pearls of achalasia?
1) There is dysphagia that is worse for liquids
2) The patient eventually learns that sitting up straight and waiting allows the weight of the column of liquid to overcome the sphincter
3) There is occasional regurgitation of undigested food
In a patient with achalasia, what will be seen on X-rays?
Megaesophagus
What is the diagnostic test for achalasia?
Manometry is diagnostic
What is the most appealing current treatment for achalasia?
The most appealing current treatment is balloon dilitation done by endoscopy
What is the classic clinical presentation of cancer of the esophagus?
1) There is a classic progression of dysphagia starting with meat, then other solids, then soft foods, eventually liquids, and finally (in several months) saliva
2) Significant weight loss is always seen
Who most commonly develops squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus?
Squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus is seen in men with a history of smoking and drinking (blacks have high incidence)
Who most commonly develops adenocarcinoma of the esophagus?
Adenocarcinoma of the esophagus is seen in people with long-standing gastroesophageal reflux
What diagnostic test establishes the diagnosis of cancer of the esophagus? What must precede this test to help prevent inadvertent perforation of the esophagus?
Diagnosis for both squamous cell and adenocarcinoma of the esophagus is established with endoscopy and biopsies, but barium swallow must precede the endoscopy to help prevent inadvertent perforation
What is the function of performing a CT scan in patients with esophageal cancer? What is the function of surgery in esophageal cancer?
1) CT scan assesses operability of the esophagus
2) Most cases can only get palliative (rather than curative) surgery
When does a Mallory-Weiss tear occur? What is a sign of a Mallory-Weiss tear?
1) Mallory-Weiss tear occurs after prolonged, forceful vomiting
2) Eventually, bright red blood comes up
How is a Mallory-Weiss tear diagnosed? How is it treated?
Endoscopy establishes diagnosis and allows photocoagulation (laser)
How does Boerhaave syndrome begin? What is the clinical presentation of Boerhaave syndrome?
1) Boerhaave syndrome starts with prolonged, forceful vomiting leading to esophageal perforation
2) There is continuous, severe, wrenching epigastric and low sternal pain of sudden onset, soon followed by fever, leukocytosis, and a very sick-looking patient
How is diagnosis of Boerhaave made? How is it treated?
1) Contrast swallow (Gastrografin first, barium if negative) is diagnostic
2) Emergency surgical repair should follow
3) Delay in diagnosis and treatment has grave consequences
What is the most common reason for esophageal perforation?
Instrumental perforation of the esophagus is by far the most common reason for esophageal perforation
How does intrumental perforation of the esophagus present? How is it treated?
1) Shortly after completion of endoscopy, symptoms as described for Boerhaave syndrome (continuous, severe, wrenching epigastric and low sternal pain of sudden onset, soon followed by fever, leukocytosis, and a very sick-looking patient) will develop. There may be emphysema in the lower neck (virtually diagnostic in this setting)
2) Contrast studies and prompt repair are imperative
In what age group is gastric adenocarcinoma more common?
Gastric adenocarcinoma is more common in the elderly
What is the common presentation of gastric adenocarcinoma?
There is anorexia, weight loss, and vague epigastric distress or early satiety. Ocassionally there is hematemesis
How is gastric adenocarcinoma diagnosed? What is the function of CT scan in gastric adenocarcinoma? What is the best therapy?
1) Endoscopy and biopsies are diagnostic
2) CT scan helps assess operability
3) Surgery is the best therapy
How common is gastric lymphoma in relation to gastric adenocarcinoma and how does it present?
1) Gastric lymphoma is nowadays almost as common as gastric adenocarcinoma
2) Presentation and diagnosis are similar (There is anorexia, weight loss, and vague epigastric distress or early satiety. Ocassionally there is hematemesis)
What is the treatment for gastric lymphoma? How can low-grade lymphomatoid transformation (Maltoma) be reversed?
1) Treatment is based on chemotherapy or radiotherapy
2) Surgery is done if perforation is feared as the tumor melts away
3) Low-grade lymphomatoid transformation (Maltoma) can be reversed by eradication of H.pylori
What is the typical cause of mechanical intestinal obstruction? How does it present? What can be heard on auscultation early on?
1) Mechanical intestinal obstruction is typically caused by adhesions in those who have had a prior laparotomy
2) There is colicky abdominal pain and protracted vomiting, progressive abdominal distention (if it is a low obstruction), and no passage of gas or feces
3) Early on, high-pitched bowel sounds coincide with the colicky pain (after a few days there is silence)
What do X-rays of a mechanical intestinal obstruction show?
X-rays show distended loops of small bowel, with air-fluid levels
How is mechanical intestinal obstruction treated?
1) Treatment starts with NPO, NG suction, and IV fluids, hoping for spontaneous resolution, while watching for early signs of strangulation
2) Surgery is done if conservative management is unsuccessful, within 24 hours in cases of complete obstruction or within a few days in cases of partial obstruction
How does a strangulated obstruction present? How is it treated?
1) Strangulated obstruction (compromised blood supply) starts as a mechanical intestinal obstruction does (There is colicky abdominal pain and protracted vomiting, progressive abdominal distention (if it is a low obstruction), and no passage of gas or feces), but eventually the patient develops fever, leukocytosis, constant pain, signs of peritoneal irritation, and ultimately full-blown peritonitis and sepsis
2) Emergency surgery is required
How does mechanical intestinal obstruction caused by an incarcerated hernia present? How is it treated?
1) Mechanical intestinal obstruction caused by an incarcerated hernia presents with colicky abdominal pain and protracted vomiting, progressive abdominal distention (if it is a low obstruction), and no passage of gas or feces, but can eventually lead to strangulation in which the patient develops fever, leukocytosis, constant pain, signs of peritoneal irritation, and ultimately full-blown peritonitis and sepsis
2) Physical exam however, shows the irreducible hernia that used to be reducible
3) Because we can effectively eliminate the hernia (we cannot effectively eliminate adhesions), all of these undergo surgical repair, but the timing varies: emergently after proper rehydration in those who appear to be strangulated; electively in those who can be reduced manually and have viable bowel
Which patients present with carcinoid syndrome? How does this syndrome present?
1) Carcinoid syndrome is seen in patients with a small bowel carcinoid tumor with liver metastasis
2) The syndrome includes diarrhea, flushing of the face, wheezing, and right-sided heart valvular damage (look for prominent jugular venous pulse)
How is carcinoid syndrome diagnosed?
24-hour urinary collection for 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid provides the diagnosis. (Hint: Whenever syndromes produce episodic attacks or spells, the offending agent will be at high concentrations in the blood only at the time of the attack. A blood sample taken afterward will be normal. Thus, a 24-hour urinary collection is more likely to provide the diagnosis)
What is the classic picture of acute appendicitis? What is found on physical exam and labs? What is the treatment?
1) The classic picture of acute appendicitis begins with anorexia, followed by vague periumbilical pain that several hours later becomes sharp, severe, constant, and localized to the right lower quadrant of the abdomen
2) Tenderness, guarding, and rebound are found to the right and below the umbilicus (not elsewhere in the belly)
3) There is modest fever and leukocytosis in the 10,000-15,000 range, with neutrophilia and immature forms
4) Emergency appendectomy should follow
How do doubtful presentations of acute appendicitis present? How are they diagnosed?
1) Doubtful presentations that could be acute appendicitis include any that do not have all the classic findings
2) CT scan has become the standard diagnostic modality for those cases
How does cancer of the right colon present? In what age group does it present? Is there occult blood? What tests are diagnostic? What is the treatment of choice?
1) Cancer of the right colon typically shows up with anemia (hypochromic, iron deficiency) in the right age group (elderly), for no good reason
2) Stools will be 4+ for occult blood
3) Colonoscopy and biopsies are diagnostic
4) Surgery (right hemicolectomy) is treatment of choice
How does cancer of the left colon present? What are the first diagnostic studies done? What needs to be done before surgical treatment? What is the function of CT scan in cancer of the left colon?
1) Cancer of the left colon typically shows with bloody bowel movements. Blood coats the outside of the stool, there may be constipation, and stools may have narrow caliber
2) Flexible proctosigmoidoscopic exam (45 or 60 cm) and biopsies are usually the first diagnostic study
3) Before surgery is done, full colonoscopy is needed to rule out synchronous second primary. Pre-op chemotherapy and radiation may be needed for large rectal cancers
4) CT scan helps assess operability and extent
Can colonic polyps be premalignant? If so, what is the descending order of probability for malignant degeneration? Which polyps are not premalignant?
1) Yes, colonic polyps may be premalignant
2) In descending order of probability for malignant degeneration are familial polyposis (and variants such as Gardner), familial multiple inflammatory polyps, villous adenoma, and adenomatous polyp
3) Poylps that are not premalignant include juvenile, Peutz-Jeghers, isolated inflammatory, and hyperplastic
What kind of diarrhea do Crohn’s disease and chronic ulcerative colitis (CUC) produce? When is Crohn’s disease treated surgically? When is CUC treated surgically?
1) Crohn’s disease and CUC produce severe diarrhea with blood and mucus
2) Crohn’s disease and CUC can happen in multiple GI locations, and thus cannot be cured by surgical resection. Crohn’s disease is surgically treated only when there are complications such as bleeding, stricture, or fistulization
3) CUC can be surgically cured but is avoided because it always requires removal of the rectal mucosa, raising the need for a stoma or an ileoanal anastomosis. Indications for surgery in CUC include active disease for more than 20 years (malignant degeneration), severe nutritional depletion, multiple hospitalizations, need for high-dose steroids or immunosuppressants, or development of toxic megacolon (fever, leukocytosis, abdominal pain and tenderness, and massively dilated colon with gas within the wall)
How is pseudomembranous enterocolitis caused? What are symptoms? How is the diagnosis best made? What is the treatment of choice?
1) Pseudomembranous enterocolitis is caused by overgrowth of Clostridium difficile in patients who have been on antibiotics. Any antibiotic can do it. Clindamycin was the first one described, and, currently, cephalosporins are the most common cause
2) There is profuse, watery diarrhea, crampy abdominal pain, fever, and leukocytosis
3) The diagnosis is best made by identifying the toxin in the stool. Stool cultures take too long, and the pseudomembranes are not always seen on endoscopy. The culpable antibiotic should be discontinued, and no antidiarrheals should be used
4) Metronidazole is the treatment of choice, with vancomycin serving as an alternate. A virulent form of the disease, unresponsive to treatment, with a WBC above 50,000 and serum lactate above 5, requires emergency colectomy
What is a recently reported effective cure for the overgrowth of C. diff?
Fecal enema has been recently reported as a very effective cure for the overgrowth of C. diff. It makes sense that restoring normal bowel flora would help in this situation
What should be ruled out in all anorectal disease and how is it done?
In all anorectal disease cancer should be ruled out by proper physical exam (including proctosigmoidoscopic exam), even though the clinical presentation may suggest a specific benign process
Which type of hemorrhoid bleeds? Which type is painful?
1) Hemorrhoids typically bleed when they are internal (can be treated with rubber band ligation), or hurt when they are external may need surgery if conservative treatment fails)
2) Internal hemorrhoids can become painful and produce itching if they are prolapsed
Who commonly develops an anal fissure? How does it present? What is believed to cause and perpetuate the problem? What is the choice of therapy?
1) Anal fissures happen to young women
2) They have exquisite pain with defecation and blood streaks covering the stools. The fear of pain is so intense that they avoid bowel movements (and get constipated) and sometimes refuse proper physical examination of the area. Exam may need to be done under anesthesia (the fissure is usually posterior, in the midline)
3) A tight sphincter is believed to cause and perpetuate the problem, thus therapy is directed at relaxing it: stool softeners, topical nitroglycerin, local injection of botulinum toxin, forceful diltation or lateral internal sphincterotomy
4) Calcium channel blockers such as diltiazem ointment 2% TID topically for 6 weeks have had an 80-90% success rate, as compared to only 50% success for botulinum toxin
How does anorectal Crohn’s disease present? How is it treated?
1) Crohn’s disease often affects the anal area. It starts with a fissure, fistula, or small ulceration, but the diagnosis should be suspected when the area fails to heal and gets worse after surgical interventions (the anal area typically heals very well because it has excellent blood supply-failure to do so means Crohn’s disease)
2) Surgery, in fact, should not be done in Crohn’s disease of the anus. A fistula, if present, could be drained with setons while medical therapy is underway. Remicade (infliximab) helps healing
How does an ischiorectal (perirectal) abscess present?
1) Ischiorectal abscess (perirectal abscess) is very common
2) Patient is febrile, with exquisite perirectal pain that does not let him sit down or have bowel movements
3) Physical exam shows all the classic findings of an abscess (rubor, dolor, calor, and tumor) lateral to the anus, between the rectum and the ischial tuberosity
How is a ischiorectal (perirectal) abscess treated and what should be ruled out during the procedure? What should one look out for after treatment if the patient is severely diabetic?
1) Incision and drainage are needed, and cancer should be ruled out by proper examination during the procedure
2) If a patient is severely diabetic, horrible necrotizing soft tissue infection may follow: watch him closely
How can a fistula-in-ano form?
1) Fistula-in-ano develops in some patients who have had an ischiorectal abscess drained
2) Epithelial migration from the anal crypts (where the abscess originated) and from the perineal skin (where the drainage was done) form a permanent tract
What do patients complain of with a fistula-in-ano? What does physical exam show?
1) Patient reports fecal soiling and occasional perineal discomfort
2) Physical exam shows opening (or openings) lateral to the anus, a cordlike tract may be felt, and discharge may be expressed
What should you rule out when a fistula-in-ano may be present? How is a fistula-in-ano treated?
1) Rule out necrotic and draining tumor
2) Treat with fistulotomy
Who more commonly develops squamous cell carcinoma of the anus?
Squamous cell carcinoma of the anus is more common in HIV+, and in homosexuals with receptive sexual practices
How does squamous cell carcinoma of the anus present? What additional finding can be palpated on physical exam commonly?
1) A fungating mass grows out of the anus
2) Metastatic inguinal nodes are often felt
How is squamous cell carcinoma of the anus diagnosed? How is it treated?
1) Diagnose with biopsy
2) Treatment starts with Nigro chemoradiation protocol, followed by surgery if there is residual tumor
3) Currently the 5-week chemo-radiation protocol has a 90% success rate, so surgery rarely is required
What is Nigro chemoradiation protocol?
Nigro protocol is the pre-operative use of chemotherapy with 5-fluorouracil and mitomycin and medical radiation for squamous cell carcinomas of the anal canal of less than 5 cm, followed by surgical excision if necessary
Where do most GI bleeds originate from? Where do the remaining GI bleeds originate from?
1) General statistics of GI bleeding show that 3 of 4 cases originate in the upper GI tract (from the tip of the nose to the ligament of Treitz)
2) 1 of 4 originates in the colon or rectum, and very few arise from the jejunum of ileum
What are causes of GI bleeding arising from the colon? Where are GI bleeds most commonly seen in younger patients as compared to older patients?
1) GI bleeding arising from the colon comes from angiodysplasia, polyps, diverticulosis, or cancer, all of which are diseases of old people. Even hemorrhoids become more common with age
2) Thus, when a young patient has GI bleeding, the odds are overwhelming that is comes from the upper GI tract. When an old patient bleeds, it could be from anywhere (an “equal opportunity bleeder”), as the upper GI is the most common source overall (3/4), but age makes that old patient a good candidate for lower GI bleeding. Statistics are helpful when the bleeding is per rectum, but they are not needed when patients vomit blood
When a patient vomits blood, where does it originate from? What about when blood is recovered by NG tube? If blood is recovered from an NG tube, what is the next best diagnostic test? What should you first check before conducting this diagnostic test?
1) Vomiting blood always denotes a source within the upper GI (tip of the nose to the ligament of Treitz)
2) The same is true when blood is recovered by NG tube in a patient who shows up with bleeding per rectum
3) The best next diagnostic test in that setting is upper GI endoscopy
4) Be sure to look at the mouth and nose first
What does melena (black, tarry stools) indicate? How should you begin workup for melena?
1) Melena always indicates digested blood, thus it must originate high enough to undergo digestion
2) Start workup with upper GI endoscopy
Where does red blood per rectum originate from? What series of steps should first be done to determine if the origin of actively bleeding red blood per rectum is from an upper GI bleed?
1) Red blood per rectum could come from anywhere in the GI tract (including upper GI, as it may have transited too fast to be digested)
2) The first diagnostic maneuver if the patient is actively bleeding at the time is to pass an NG tube and aspirate gastric contents. If blood is retrieved, an upper source has been established (follow with upper endoscopy). If no blood is retrieved and the fluid is white (no bile), the territory from the tip of the nose to the pylorus has been excluded, but the duodenum is still a potential source. Upper GI endoscopy should follow. If no blood is recovered and the fluid is green (bile tinged), the entire upper GI (tip of the nose to the ligament of Treitz) has been excluded, and there is no need for an upper GI endoscopy
When upper GI bleed has been excluded, how should active bleeding per rectum be worked up?
1) Active bleeding per rectum, when upper GI has been excluded, is more difficult to work up
2) Bleeding hemorrhoids should always be excluded first (anoscopy), but colonoscopy is not helpful during active bleeding (the oncoming blood obscures the field)
3) There are two ways to go after the hemorrhoids have been excluded. Some practitioners proceed according to the estimated rate of bleeding. If it exceeds 2 mL/min (1 unit of blood every 4 hours), they do an angiogram, which has a very good chance of finding the source and may allow for angiographic embolization. If the bleeding is less than 0.5 mL/min, they wait until the bleeding stops and then do a colonoscopy. For the cases in-between, they may do a tagged red-cell study. If the tagged blood puddles somewhere, an angiogram may be productive. The curse of the tagged red cell study is that it is a slow test. By the time it’s finished, the patient is often no longer bleeding, and the subsequent angiogram is useless. In that case, at least there is some idea if the puddling is on the right or the left and could thus guide a potential “blind” hemicolectomy in the future. If the tagged red cells do not show up on the scan, a subsequent colonoscopy is planned. Some practitioners always begin with the tagged red-cell study, regardless of the estimated rate of bleeding
4) With increasing frequency in clinical practice, when bleeding is not found to be in the colon, capsule endoscopy is done to localize the spot in the small bowel, once the patient is stable.
How should workup be started for a patient with a recent history of blood per rectum, but no active bleeding at the time of presentation?
Patients with a recent history of blood per rectum, but not actively bleeding at the time of presentation, should start workup with upper GI endoscopy if they are young (overwhelming odds); but if they are old they need both an upper and a lower GI endoscopy (at the same session)
What is the most common cause of blood per rectum in a child? How should you start the work up of this condition?
1) Blood per rectum in a child should be from Meckel diverticulum
2) Start workup with technetium scan, looking for the ectopic gastric mucosa
What is the most likely cause of massive upper GI bleeding in the stressed, multiple trauma, or complicated post-op patient?
Stress ulcers
What are stress ulcers? Where are they found?
1) A stress ulcer is a single or multiple mucosal defect which can become complicated by upper gastrointestinal bleeding during the physiologic stress of serious illness
2) Ordinary peptic ulcers are found commonly in the gastric antrum and the duodenum whereas stress ulcers are found commonly in fundic mucosa and can be located anywhere within the stomach and proximal duodenum
How do you confirm the diagnosis of a suspected stress ulcer?
Endoscopy
What is the best therapeutic option for a stress ulcer? How can a stress ulcer be avoided?
1) Angiographic embolization
2) Stress ulcers should be avoided by maintaining the gastric pH above 4
What are categorical processes that can cause acute abdominal pain?
1) Perforation
2) Obstruction
3) Inflammatory or ischemic processes
How does acute abdominal pain caused by perforation present? What is the confirmatory diagnosis?
1) Acute abdominal pain caused by perforation has sudden onset and is constant, generalized, and very severe
2) The patient is reluctant to move, and very protective of his abdomen
3) Except in the very old or very sick, impressive generalized signs of peritoneal irritation are found (tenderness, muscle guarding, rebound, silent abdomen)
4) If present, free air under the diaphragm in upright x-rays confirms the diagnosis
What is the most common example of acute abdominal pain caused by perforation? What is the treatment of acute abdominal pain caused by perforation?
1) Perforated peptic ulcer is the most common example
2) Emergency surgery is needed
How does acute abdominal pain caused by obstruction of a duct (ureter, cystic, or common) present?
1) Acute abdominal pain caused by obstruction of a narrow duct (ureter, cystic, or common) has sudden onset of very severe colicky pain, with typical location and radiation according to source
2) The patient moves constantly, seeking a position of comfort
3) There are few physical findings, and they are limited to the area where the process is
How does acute abdominal pain caused by inflammatory process present? What are the physical exam and lab findings?
1) Acute abdominal pain caused by inflammatory process has gradual onset and slow buildup (at the very least a couple of hours, more commonly 6 or 10 or 12 hours), it is constant, starts as ill-defined, eventually locates to the area where the problem is, and often has typical radiation patterns
2) There are physical findings of peritoneal irritation in the affected area, and (except for pancreatitis) systemic signs such as fever and leukocytosis
What is a characteristic feature of ischemic processes of acute abdominal pain?
Ischemic processes affecting the bowel are the only ones that combine severe abdominal pain with blood in the lumen of the gut
When should primary peritonitis be suspected in a patient? What will cultures of the ascitic fluid reveal? How is primary peritonitis treated?
1) Primary peritonitis should be suspected in the child with nephrosis and ascites, or the adult with ascites who has a “mild” generalized acute abdomen with equivocal physical findings, and perhaps some fever and leukocytosis
2) Cultures of the ascitic fluid will yield a single organism (in garden-variety acute abdomens, a multiplicity of organisms grow)
3) Treat with antibiotics, not with surgery
What is the treatment for a generalized acute abdomen? What conditions that mimic a generalized acute abdomen should be ruled out before treatment and what tests can be done to rule these conditions out?
1) The treatment for a generalized acute abdomen is exploratory laparotomy, with no need to have a specific diagnosis as to the exact nature of the process
2) If it does not look like primary peritonitis (one of the exceptions), we only need to rule out things that may mimic an acute abdomen-myocardial ischemia (EKG, tropnins), lower lobe pneumonia (chest x-ray), PE (immobilized patient)-or things that specifically do not require surgery-pancreatitis (amylase or lipase) and urinary stones (CT scan of abdomen)
When should acute pancreatitis be most suspected? What is the classic picture of acute pancreatitis?
1) Acute pancreatitis should be suspected in the alcoholic who develops an “upper” acute abdomen
2) The classic picture has rapid onset for an inflammatory process (a couple of hours), and the pain is constant, epigastric, radiating straight through to the back, with nausea, vomiting, and retching
3) Physical findings are relatively modest, found in the upper abdomen
How is acute pancreatitis diagnosed? What if the diagnosis is unclear?
1) Diagnose with serum or urinary amylase or lipase (serum from 12 to 48 hours, urinary from third to sixth day)
2) CT if diagnosis is unclear
How is acute pancreatitis treated?
Treat with NPO, NG suction, IV fluids
In what patients should biliary tract disease be suspected?
Biliary tract disease should be suspected in the fat woman in her forties who has “fifty-five children,” and who develops right upper quadrant abdominal pain
How do ureteral stones present? What will be found on urinalysis? What is the best diagnostic test?
1) Ureteral stones produce sudden onset of colicky flank pain radiating to inner thigh and scrotum (or labia), sometimes with other urinary symptoms like urgency and frequency; and with microhematuria in the urinalysis
2) CT scan is the best diagnostic test
What is one of the very few inflammatory processes giving acute abdominal pain in the left lower quadrant? What is the common age group for the this condition? What is the common presentation for this condition?
1) Acute diverticulitis is one of the very few inflammatory processes giving acute abdominal pain in the left lower quadrant (in women the tube and ovary are other potential sources)
2) Patient is middle-age or beyond
3) There is fever, leukocytosis, physical findings of peritoneal irritation in the left lower quadrant, and sometimes a palpable tender mass
What is the diagnostic test for acute diverticulitis? How is it first treated? If initial treatment does not work, what is the next treatment option? In the presence of an abscess, what can be done? Who is eligible for elective surgery?
1) CT is diagnostic
2) Start treatment with NPO, IV fluids, antibiotics. Most will cool down
3) Emergency surgery is needed for those who do not
4) Radiologically guided percutaneous drainage of abscess may precede resection
5) Elective surgery for those who have had at least two or more attacks
Volvulus of the sigmoid is commonly seen in what age group? What are two clinical signs of volvulus of the sigmoid?
1) Old people
2) Intestinal obstruction and severe abdominal distention
What is the diagnostic test for volvulus of the sigmoid? How can it be treated? What is recommended for recurrent cases?
1) X-rays are diagnostic, as they show air-fluid levels in the small bowel, very distended colon, and a huge air-filled loop in the right upper quadrant that tapers down toward the left lower quadrant with the shape of a “parrot’s beak”
2) Proctosigmoidoscopic exam with the old rigid instrument resolves the acute problem. Rectal tube is left in
3) Recurrent cases need elective sigmoid resection
Mesenteric ischemia is commonly seen in what age group? What is the real key to development of mesenteric ischemia?
1) Mesenteric ischemia is seen predominantly in the elderly
2) The real key is the development of an acute abdomen in someone with atrial fibrillation or a recent MI (the source of the clot that breaks off and lodges in the superior mesenteric artery)
Why is the diagnosis of mesenteric ischemia often made late? What diagnostic test may save the day in a very early case of mesenteric ischemia?
1) Because the very old do not mount impressive acute abdomens, often the diagnosis is made late, when there is blood in the bowel lumen (the only condition that mixes acute pain with GI bleeding) and acidosis and sepsis have developed
2) In very early cases, arteriogram and embolectomy might save the day
In the United States, primary hepatoma (hepatocellular carcinoma) is only seen in patients with what conditions?
Primary hepatoma (hepatocellular carcinoma) is seen in the United States only in people with cirrhosis, or those known to have had hepatitis B or C
How does primary hepatoma present? What is the specific blood marker? What test will show the location and extent of the hepatoma? What treatment can be done if possible?
1) Patients develop vague right upper-quadrant discomfort and weight loss
2) The specific blood marker is alpha-fetoprotein
3) CT scan will show location and extent
4) Resection is done if technically possible
Is there more metastatic or primary cancer of the liver? How much more?
Metastatic cancer of the liver outnumbers primary cancer of the liver in the United States by 20:1