Personality and Individual Differences Flashcards
What did Mischel say about consistency in adapting to situations (1968)
you’re constantly good at adapting your behaviour to new situations
How do humans maintain a sense of unity (2 answers)?
-the multiple components of the mind function as a complex, interconnected system
-we have a self and we encode everything with reference to ourselves which is the glue that binds memories
what aspects of personality occur outside of awareness?
unconscious thoughts and self reflection
What would Freud, and then Bandura, say about the likelihood of a girl who has been bullied at school going on to study medicine?
Freud- she’s too scared to study medicine because of bad experiences at school as a child
Bandura: she’s going to study medicine because she believes she can overcome anxiety and pursue her goals
explain LOTS
L- life data (grades, criminal record, maritial status)
O- observation data (parents, teachers, friends filling out questionnaire about said person)
T- test data (standardised tests like IQ, delay of gratification)
S- self report data (responses to questionnaires, self rating on traits)
what is trait perspective
we use traits to summarize, predict, and explain behaviour
who were the main researchers of trait perspective ?
Allport and Cattell (1897-1998), Eysenck (1916-1997)
What are the shared assumptions of dispositions between theories?
dispositions are the building blocks of personality, dispositions can be organized in a hierarchal way from specific to general
explain idiographic
studying particular things about individuals that make them different
What is the Lexical hypothesis?
if enough people behave in a certain way people will find a certain word for it (found 1800 trait words)
individual traits are separated into the three following:
-cardinal (greed, ambition)
-central (warm, honest)
-secondary (specific circumstances e.g. gets anxious in lifts)
What is positivism?
a philosophy that believes the goal of knowledge is only to describe what people experience, and that science should only study what is measurable. only accepts what can be seen and proved
What did Allport think about positivism?
thought is was bad for psychology. we only see nominal traits. neuropsychological structures are veridical traits. opposing view to Eysenck and Cattel.
What is the 16 traits personality?
by Cattell, inspired by the periodic table. you need 16 source traits to describe someone’s personality. everyone has each trait to some degree. measured by a 16 factor questionnaire. traits are clustered based on correlations to make source traits.
Is there evidence for 16 traits?
LOTS data, similar cross culture results, similar results among age groups, good predictor of real life behaviour, evidence of a genetic component
what are Eysenck’s 3 derived dimensions in factor analysis?
extraversion/introversion, neuroticism, psychoticism
why did Eysenck dislike psychodynamic and situational explanations of personality?
he believed that neuropsychology causes personality and brain states brain processes.
explain neuroticism, introversion and extraversion in the autonomous nervous system:
high neuroticism means strong and quick reactions.
high extraversion means chronically under aroused (needing more to stay aroused).
high introversion means chronically over aroused (hyper-aroused, less is more)
what do Allport, Cattell, and Eysenck agree and disagree on?
they agree traits are fundamental units of personality. they disagree on the number of dimensions and how to study them
McCrae and Costa (1989) arrived at 5 personality dimensions, what were they?
extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeable, openness
Describe the biological origin of the big five…
Minnesota study of twins who were raised apart. 59 pairs of identical twins raised apart and 47 pairs of fraternal twins who were raised together. the identical twins who lived apart were found to be more similar than the fraternal twins raised together.
what are the uses of trait approach?
vocational guidance, personnel selection, compatibility, baseline for clinical diagnosis
what are the limitations of Cattell, according to Allport?
individual behaviour cannot be predicted from looking at nominal traits. factor analysis gives you artificial clusters and is not as objective as it appears.
words that associate with behaviourism (Skinner, Watson):
rewards, punishments, responses, learning
What theory about behaviour was introduced by Bandura?
reciprocal determinism; exposure to life experience, learn that actions have consequence, develop internal morals and values, these guide our actions.
What is RCRT?
Role Construct Repertory Test. an idiographic test. list important people in your life called elements. pick three elements at a time and consider how two of these could be regarded similarly and differently from the third. these are constructs. continue until you used up your groups of three or you can’t think of constructs to use
what is Kelly’s Cognitive View?
situation does not blindly lead to behaviour. the situation is interpreted from personal constructs which determine behaviour
Personality paradox:
Mischel 1968. found that people’s behaviour isn’t as similar from situation to situation as trait perspective implies
What is RCRT used in?
counselling (idiographic use): psychotherapy, marital problems, maintaining friendships, adjusting to life changes
nomothetical use: Bannister and Fransella’s 1967 grid test of thought disorder (e.g. schizophrenia test)
What is the difference between weak situations and strong situations?
weak situations have a negligible power to influence your behaviour. strong situations give little freedom of behaviour
what does Mischel say on the delay of gratification in children?
dependent on how children interpret situations and qualities of the children themselves
what does delayed gratification in children correlate with?
academic and social competence
does Mischel believe people’s behaviour is consistent ?
people differ in how they categorize situations e.g. work vs home, thinking vs doing, boring vs excitement
what are the two types of goals?
-proximal: nearer goals that influence current behaviour
-distal: goals further in the future, ‘ultimate’ goals
describe Mischel’s evaluative standards?
action: e.g. writing an essay
evaluation: achieved/not achieved
self evaluative response: pride/anger
what are three differences between trait and social cognitive perspective?
-trait measures personality on a questionnaire. SC (social cognitive) says averaging behaviour is meaningless as variation per situation is what personality is
-traits cause behaviour. SC says traits are only a descriptor, explaining people’s action requires looking at cognitive thinking and emotional systems
-traits put emphasis on stable factor structures. social cognitive emphasis on people adapting to circumstances
What did Rogers conclude as a therapist?
the core of human nature is essentially positive
What self’s did the humanistic theory believe contributed towards self-concept?
actual self and ideal self
What did Roger’s believe would happen when actual self and ideal self are accomplished?
self-actualization
What was Maslow’s distinction between biological and psychological needs?
He believed that basic needs appeared in a pyramid in which each level had to be accomplished before reaching the next. The first base was simple physiological needs such as air, water, food, shelter, sleep, and sex. The pyramid progressed onto more psychological needs such as social aspects and esteem. And finally at the top of the pyramid was self actualization.
What is a self actualized person?
these people accept themselves as they are, maintain a responsible boundary between helping other but also themselves, react more positively to the individualism of other people, for strong relationships, have a creative brain, and can resist conformity.
What is one strength and one weakness of the humanistic perspective?
Strength: high validity due to trying to understand the entire person and focus on how they personally see their world
Weakness: not comprehensive due to exclusion of variables such as unconscious processes from research, and does not specifically cover how personality development, guilt, or depression occur.
What was Freud’s original field of study?
He was a neurologist in Vienne researching the comparison of foetal and adult brains
What is free association (Freud)?
free association is a treatment method whereby a patient leads the therapy session by talking about anything and everything on their mind with no particular structure. The therapist then searched for underlying thought patterns and deep psychological meaning in the patients words. This brings the unconscious to the conscious.
What theory did Freud come up with influenced by the conservation of energy principle?
Humans are energy systems. This is in the way that whatever energy a person experiences and fails to outlet or express will always find a different was to present itself in another form
What are the three personality components of the iceberg theory?
ID- impulses and desires
Superego- judgement and morality
Ego- conscious mediator between the id and superego
Explain pleasure principal and reality principal:
the pleasure principal is the reward system the ID is driven towards when it fulfils its desires, and the repulsions it experiences from pain. The reality principle is the rationality of the ego in deciding how to realistically progress given the information from the ID and superego.
What is a Freudian slip?
an accidental error in a sentence that can be regarded as revealing subconscious feelings
What are the five defence mechanisms carried out by the ego?
denial, projection, isolation & undoing, reaction formation & sublimation, repression
According to Freud what are the three early developmental stages?
oral, anal (ego develops), phallic (superego develops)
Before his ideas got turned down, what did Adler suggest?
emphasis on social urges and conscious thoughts. people strive to have power and have to react to feelings of inferiority
Explain the collective unconscious:
a term introduced to represent an unconscious that all humans possess containing memories and impulses that they are not aware of.
Name a strength and a weakness of psychodynamic perspective:
strength: observes every aspect of human nature and acknowledges the complexity. (comprehensive)
weakness: does not make specific predictions that can be tested (not falsifiable)
Describe the three categories of personality disorders:
Odd/eccentric behaviour including paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal.
Dramatic and emotional behaviour including antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
High levels of fear and anxiety including avoidant, dependent, obssesive compulsive
which psychological perspective would believe that the personality lies on a spectrum, that this is biological, and that the big five can be used to determine the best treatment?
trait perspective
which psychological perspective would believe that personality disorders result from being stuck at different stages in life resulting in a failure of development?
psychodynamic perspective
which psychological perspectives believes in personality disorders arising from discrepancies between self concept and actual experience resulting in denial and distortion?
Humanistic perspective
which persoanlity persepctive believes in personality disorders being a vicious circle due to distorted cognitions about self, others, and events in the world?
Social-cognitive perspective
Is treatment possible for personality
disorders?
treatments can be possible but there are further investigations into what specifically will help. treatment plans may be more individual. medication can be used to help manage co occurring symptoms. treatment is majority reliant on therapies however not all people will positively react to treatment and therapy can be a long term situation.
how was learned helplessness presented by dog’s?
dogs were exposed to shocks the could not escape. after, they were exposed to more shocks yet this time they could escape. some dogs needed help to escape due to their learned helplessness from the task before
how does explanatory style explain learned optimism?
focus on the ways we interpret setbacks in life. if we change our beliefs of adversities we can change the consequences.
What is the critical perspective of learned optimism?
its the experience of an adverse situation which then determines a person’s level of optimism
Which theory suggests optimism as a genetic disposition or personality trait?
dispositional optimism
Which theory is situational optimism an expansion of and how are these related?
disposition optimism.
individuals generate positive or negative expectations regarding specific situations which align with dispositional optimism
when may people shift from optimism?
as a response to possibility of an undesired outcome that can be easily imagined and are uncontrollable. particularly present in people with low self esteem
how do people with low hope differ from those with high hope?
they differ in the number and specificity of their goals, flexibility in generating pathways, and ability to self motivate
what are the two components involved in Charles Snyder’s hope theory?
agency- determination and motivation
pathways- plans and strategies
why is ‘positive thinking’ a term that is not often used in psychology?
some psychologists interpret ‘positive thinking’ as a repression or denial of negative thoughts.
What is a primary appraisal?
an initial assessment of threats, potential losses, and challenges. The outlook of such depends on complexity, social support, intensity, and perceived control
What are problem focused coping strategies?
strategies which are directed at the stress and a change in the environment or self. positive people are more likely to use these and are hence confident, persistent, and possess a challenge appraisal
What is an emotion focus coping strategy?
a focus on emotion, and decreasing emotional distress involving; avoidance, distance, blame, gaslighting, and venting as a from of stress relief. these people are deemed more negative and possess threat appraisals
resilience =
optimism and self esteem
define self esteem:
how much a person likes, accepts, and respects themselves as a person overall
explain the relationship between optimism, self esteem, and wellbeing.
optimism and self esteem are highly correlated. optimism and self esteem are also associated with better health and wellbeing
name some beneficial associations with optimism:
lower academic burnout and therefore higher success, better quality of life, better psychological wellbeing, buffering against harmful effects of body dissatisfaction, lower stress following surgery
How does the risk or mortality relate to optimism and pessimism?
A study using the optimism pessimism scale of Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI) found that after a 30 year follow up those who were classified as pessimistic had an increased mortality risk of 19%
What differentiates social anxiety disorder from shyness, embarrassment, and social anxiety?
as a disorder, social anxiety will interfere with every day life such as skipping class to avoid social interaction. upon attempting to interact, people with this disorder may experience physical symptoms or panic attacks
What is the diagnostic (DSM) criteria for social anxiety disorder in the aspects of cognitive, physical, and behavioural?
cognitive: a fear of social situations where there is a possibility embarrassment or rejection could occur
physical: intense and immediate anxiety that results in physical reactions
behavioural: may have an understanding that fears are exaggerated or irrational however feeling powerless to the thoughts regardless
Explain trait shyness and state shyness:
trait shyness- tendency to experience shyness with a lower threshold for being shy (as a personality trait)
state shyness: immediate emotional and cognitive experience in various situations (environmental)
What would ‘shyness’ be known as in young children?
behavioural inhibition. inhibition being around adults, difficulty joining in or making conversation.
why is environment suggested as a factor in behavioural inhibition?
there are only weak links between behavioural inhibition in early age and shyness in adolescence, suggesting an environmental role
Explain self conscious shyness
this is assumed to be dependent on theory of mind. the preoccupation with evaluation from others is likely to develop later in childhood
why is fearful shyness not strongly correlated with adulthood shyness?
fearful shyness is thought to be linked with behavioural inhibition in children that changes into adulthood
what might cultural difference in shyness be attributed to?
may be explained by how success and failure is attributed, and whether success of failure are credited internally or externally
what do impacts of social media use on well being depend on? (Clark et al., 2018)
whether the individuals use of social media promotes social connection
What are two category sources of embarrassment ?
what we do, and what others do
in the social evaluation model what is the conceptualization of embarrassment?
reaction to poor public performance only if we care about those who saw it
How might embarrassment psycholgically damage a person?
situational self esteem- where people lose self esteem due to embarrassment.
personal standards model- when people react to a failure of meeting their own standards
How can embarrassment be measured in personality?
-embraceability scale (Modigliani 1968), ‘how would you feel in these situations’
-susceptibility to embarrassment scale (Kelly and Jones 1997), ‘scale of very like me to not me at all’
According to Liu and Campbell 2017 explaining social media use by personality, what would it indicate if an individual posts photos and has a lot of friends on a social media network?
posting photos would indicate openness and agreeableness. having a large number of friends suggests extraversion.
What could a digital media footprint suggest?
interests, social networks, location/movement, and personal details
Why is the relationship between media usage and wellbeing not linear?
there need to be consideration of face to face social interaction and other activities a person engages in out with social media
what areas of life could improve from abstaining from social media or limiting media ?
a decrease in depressive symptoms, feeling less lonely, improve sleep quality and duration, and decrease social comparison
At what point does social media become unhelpful for wellbeing?
when media does not promote social connection. compensation for social networks, isolation, social comparison, and not fulfilling a need for acceptance
what is the relationship between online dating and the dark triad?
dark traits were stronger predictors of online dating behaviour
When did right wing authoritarianism begin to be studied?
after WW2
Explain the psychodynamic process of authoritarianism:
an authoritarian individual directs aggression towards other social groups in order to resolve feelings of personal weakness
According to the Californian Fascism Scale (Adorno, 1950) how would an authoritarian respond to this true or false: the youth needs discipline the most
True. Authoritarians are criticised for their old fashioned viewpoints
What does the Tripartite conceptualization consist of in Altemeyer’s right wing authoritarianism scale?
aggression, submission, conventionalism
What are two double standard inconsistencies in right wing authoritarianism?
-rights of majority and minority depending on their position
-claiming censorship of own ideas but censoring ideas of others
How would the personality big five regard right wing authoritarians?
negative openness to experience, positive conscientiousness
What is the relationship between conservatism and religion? (Wilson-Patterson attitude inventory, 1968)
religion puritanism where there is an adherence for church authority. This includes beliefs such as anti-hedonism and racial superiority
What is social dominance theory and what groups are susceptible to being oppressed?
humans predisposition to form social hierarchies. vulnerable groups to do with sexism and racism, based on social hierarchy
How is social dominance maintained?
individual discrimination, institutional discrimination, behaviour asymmetry
between left and right wing authoritarianism, what are the core symmetrical markers (traits)?
dogmatism, cognitive rigidity, prejudice, lethal partisanship
What views on the establishment differ from left to right authoritarianism
left wing authoritarians believe the present establishment should be overthrown whereas right wing sides with the present establishment
What personality traits do all authoritarians share with reference to the big five?
negative agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, positive extraversion
What core beliefs are held by all authoritarians?
preference for social uniformity, prejudice towards different groups, cognitive rigidity, punitiveness to enemies, huge concern for hierarchy, moral absolutism, political violence
Which personality factors makes a person more predisposed to extreme political action?
high sensation seeking and high cognitive rigidity
Why are facts not enough to ease irrationality (Hornsey, 2020)?
to understand beliefs that counter scientific knowledge we need to study the roots of the irrational beliefs
What are attitude roots underlying surface attitudes or irrationality?
conspiracist worldview, vested interests, ideologies, anxieties, social identities, personal identity expression
describe the conspiracist worldview:
openness to nonofficial accounts of reality including climate scepticism, opposition to GMO, suspicion of lab grown meat, antivaccination views
What does it mean that culture and personality are mutually constitutive?
culture shapes personality but individuals personalities shape culture
Does the big five personality construct apply to all cultures?
No. For example some countries have a four factor model while developing cultures have no model at all
Why does five factor model not apply to all cultures?
most measures of the big five were developed through the exploration of English personality terms using US examples. it is probable that a different set of items meaningful for a specific cultural context reveals a different personality structure
How does the evaluation of delf concept differ between the Western and Asian cultures?
For Westerners, positive self views are correlated with subjective well being and depression levels. For Asian people, self enhancement is not considered too important.
In the study by McCrae and Terracciano regarding the correlation of national character with people’s self reported personality traits, what correlations were found?
there was essentially zero correlations between these stereotypes and self reported behaviours
Explain the sense of self in the Western world compared to the rest of the world:
Western culture self tends to be identified as an independent entity grounded in internal traits. for the rest of the world there is an interdependent self concept where personality traits might be less utility for understanding oneself
When asked to explain the behaviour of others in various situations, what culture is most likely to attend to the disposition while ignoring context?
Individualistic cultures
Which cultures have less spontaneous trait inferences?
Collectivist cultures
Describe the relationship between culture and personality:
continuous, dynamic and reciprocal process of transactions
Define micro vs macro environments:
micro- immediate social and physical environment.
macro- neighbourhoods, cities, states, nations
Residents of large cities are less likely to help strangers, true or false:
True
what psychological phenomena are more likely to be clustered in wealthier places?
higher extraversion, emotional stability, and life satisfaction
Name three mechanisms that cause geographical clustering:
social influence, ecological influence, selective migration
Why may WEIRD (western, educated, industrialised, rich, democratic) people be outliers in many key domains?
they perform differently than NON WEIRD cultures in cognitive reasoning and social tasks, and are therefore outnumbered
