Personality Flashcards
What is the nomothetic approach to studying personality?
Looking for patterns i.e. similarities and differences
Comparing large numbers
What is the idiographic approach to studying personality?
Understand unique structure of an individual’s personality
What are personality traits?
Personality traits are enduring patterns of behaviour, thought and feeling that are relatively consistent across a wide variety of situations and contexts
How did Child, 1968, describe personality?
Personality has been described as more or less stable, internal factors that make one’s behaviour consistent from one time to another, and different from the behaviour other people would manifest in comparable situations
What are traits?
Traits describe the most basic and general dimensions upon which individuals are typically perceived to differ
What are examples of the stable internal factors which personality consists of?
Instincts, goals, desires, beliefs, motives, attitudes and motivational states
What is a trait of anxiety vs state of anxiety?
Trait- “the disposition to respond with anxiety to situations that are perceived as threatening”
State- “a condition of the organism characterised by subjective feelings of apprehension and heightened autonomic nervous system anxiety”
Why can Cattell’s trait theory be described as “bottom up”?
Start with observations of life and construct a theory based on these observations
What did Cattell say about the words in the English language and personality traits?
Cattell argued that the words in the English language provide useful information about the main personality traits, because any important aspect of individual differences would be represented by some relevant words
How many personality factors/source traits were identified?
16
Why is Eysenck’s trait theory described as a top down theory?
Started with theory then tested to see if it worked
What are Eysenck’s 2 type dimensions?
Extroversion-Introversion
Emotional stability-neuroticism
How can extroversion-introversion be hereditary?
Eysenck thought it was to do with reticular activating system- extroverts habitually low cortical arousal, seek strong stimuli- introverts habitually high cortical arousal, avoid strong stimuli
Introverts conditioned easily, extroverts with difficulty
How can emotional stability-neuroticism be hereditary?
Eysenck thought that it was to do with the autonomic nervous system- high neuroticism = strong and fast reaction to stress, low neuroticism= weak and slow reaction to stress
What are the big five traits that are consistently found?
Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
What is situationism?
People’s behaviour is not consistent across situationism/social learning theory
Situation is more important that ‘personality’ on behaviour
How has situationism been criticised?
Funder and Ozer (1983) found that situations are no better than traits at predicting differences in behaviour 30% variance in both
What is interactionism?
Situation and personality interact
What are the four levels of interaction in interactionism?
Effect strength
Opposing effects
Choice effects
Participation effects
What is effect strength?
Traits can vary strength of an effect
What is opposing effects?
Traits reverse direction of an effect
What is choice effects?
Different personality –> choose different situations
i.e. extroverts pick white water rafting whilst introverts pick country walks
What is participation effects?
Different personality –> others behave differently –> different situations
What is constructivism?
Personality constructed out of beliefs
What are the five steps to the confirmation of expectancies?
Observer has expectancy about target Observer acts in a certain way towards target Target responds Observer interprets target's response Target interprets their own response
What are the four major forms of behavioural measures to assess personality?
Questionnaires
Ratings
Objective tests
Projective tests
How might questionnaires be used to assess personality?
People are required to decide whether various statements about their feelings and behaviour are true or not
Quick and easy to administer
How might ratings be used to assess personality?
The observer produces ratings of other people’s behaviour
Raters are given a list of different kinds of behaviour, and rate the ratees on these behaviours
How might objective tests be used to assess personality?
Measure behaviour under laboratory conditions in such a way that the subjects do not know what the experimenter is looking for
How might projective tests be used to assess personality?
The essence of a projective test is that the subject is given a rather unstructured task to perform, such as making up a story to fit a picture or describing what can be seen in an inkblot, this will help reveal their innermost selves.
What is the most common way of assessing personality?
By self-report questionnaire
What is self-actualisation?
Drive towards wholeness ‘congruence’
What is actualisation?
Inborn drive for fullest potential
What is the need for positive regard?
Acceptance, love, friendship of others
What is the conflict between self-actualisation and the need for positive regard?
striving to meet others/own conditions of worth is an obstacle to attaining true potential
Who came up with non-directive/client-centred therapy?
Rogers
Describe client-centred therapy
Place of unconditional positive regard, work through problems, leads to self-actualisation
Who came up with the hierarchy of needs?
Maslow
What is the hierarchy?
Pyramid from primitive and most demanding to distinctly human & least demanding
What is the focus of the hierarchy of needs?
Self-actualisation
Who came up with the personal construct theory?
Kelly
Describe the personal construct theory
Phenomenological - people’s experience of reality
the need to organise and predict
Person as scientist- understand through predictions
What is a construct?
A way in which 2 things are similar and thereby different from a third
What are some characteristics of personal constructs?
Predictive efficiency
Range of convenience
Focus of convenience
Permeability
What are some systems of constructs?
Hierarchical organisation
Openness to change
What are the possible elements of reportory grids?
Personal characteristics Other characteristics of people Things Events Situations Beliefs
What are reportory grids used in?
Therapy
Market research
Training
What are the advantages of repgrids?
Personal fit
Flexibility
Multiple methods of analysis- deep qualitative or computer based
What are disadvantages of repgrids?
Need to articulate
Choice of constructs by - ease of access, ease of explanation, not necessarily importance
What are the components of personality according to Freud?
The Id, the ego and the superego
What are the levels of consciousness according to Freud?
The conscious
The pre-conscious
The unconscious
What is the conscious?
Currently aware
What is the pre-conscious?
Not currently aware but little effort
What is the unconscious?
No direct access
Once in, never out
Describe the Id
Biological drives & instincts
Entirely unconscious
Uncontrolled, uninhibited
Instant gratification
Describe the ego
Dealing with reality
Cognitive functions - e.g. perception, memory, attention, self
Conscious, pre-conscious, unconscious
Describe the superego
Moral ethics
Ego-ideal
Conscience
Judges of actions/thoughts/behaviour
What are the stages of psychosexual development?
The oral stage The anal stage The phallic stage The latency period The genital stage
What happens in the oral stage of psychosexual development?
Pleasure from mouth- sucking and biting
What happens in the anal stage of psychosexual development?
Pleasure from anus- toilet training
What happens in the phallic stage?
Pleasure from masturbation
What happens in the latency period?
Attention to external world
What happens in the genital stage?
Sexuality directed at sexual partner
What does fixation determine?
Personality type
What happens with fixation at the oral stage?
Overindulged= optimistic, trusting, manipulative Deprived= pessimistic, sarcastic, argumentative
What happens with fixation at the anal stage?
Anal expulsive= messy, generous, hostile
Anal retentive= miserly, rigid, obsessed
What happens with fixation at the phallic stage?
The oedipus complex- mother love -> sexual desire, hostility to father -> castration anxiety, transformed to identification with mother
The electra complex- father love -> sexual desire, penis envy -> hostility to mother, transformed to identification with mother
What are some of the mechanisms of defence?
Repression Denial Rationalisation Displacement Sublimation Projection Reaction formation Regression
What is repression?
A lid on negative energy
What is denial?
Unconscious refusal to believe
What is rationalisation?
Find reason after action
What is displacement?
Move to safer target
What is sublimation?
Socially aceptable displacement
What is projection?
Self-> other belief
e.g. own aggression-> belief in hostile world
What is reaction formation?
Conversion to opposite
Sign = overdoing it
e.g. overprotecting, oversexual
What is regression?
Revert to stages fixated at
What does psychoanalytic therapy focus on?
Working through fixations
Why is Freud critiqued?
Not empirically testable/berifiable
Observed sample- clinical population, victorians- 100 years ago
Who is Carl Jung and what were his views?
Freud’s protege, however disagreed with him
Named his psychology analytical psychology
Jung thought sexual was not so important
What did Jung say were the components of personality?
Ego
Personal unconscious
Collective unconscious
What were Alfred Adler’s five basic Adlerian principles?
Socially embedded Self-determining Goal-directed Subjective Holistic
Describe Adler’s socially embedded principle
One of our drives is social interest
Humans as social beings
Contrasts with biological/hereditarian view
Describe Adler’s self-determining principle
We decide
We can change
Contrasts with mechanistic/deterministic view
Describe Adler’s goal-directed principle
Pulled by goals/finalisms
Fictional goals- the story we tell about the world shapes what we do
Strike toward- security/safety, importance/significance
Contrasts with causal view
Describe Adler’s subjective principle
Truth not absolute- determined by how we feel about it
Contrasts with absolutist view
Describe Adler’s Holistic principle
Whole=more that sum of its part
Dividing into parts misses essence of person
Contrasts with reductionist view
What is the family constellation?
Central interest of Adler
Role of birth order in the family impacts personality
What are 2 key mechanisms of family constellation?
Sibling de-identification
Parental stereotypes * beliefs
What is sibling de-identification?
Efforts to become different to each other- different identity, different attributes, different activities
How were first borns believed to be?
Intelligent responsible, obedient, stable
Not emotional or creative
How were middle borns believed to be?
Envious
Not bold or talkative
How were last borns believed to be?
Emotional, creative, talkative, extroverted
Not responsible or obedient
What were the army tests?
Tests of WWI recruits
What were the two versions of the army tests?
Army alpha- written exam for literates
Army beta- pictorial exam for illiterates
What were the problems with army tests?
Not equivalent, beta didnt require literacy, other things may affect scores
What is factor analysis?
Correlations between things (rather than just pairs)
What was the two-factor model of IQ?
Common properties of general intelligence
No common aspects of each test
Specific information
What were some IQ challenges?
Stereotype threat
What is naive realism?
The idea that people tend to see themselves as objective, rational people who perceived the world and others ‘as it is’
What are examples of the bias blind spot?
Equality hypocrisy- People will say that equality is important to them, but a few questions will give responses that show they value some groups more than others
What evidence is there for naive realism?
People given participants for pro or anti death penalty evidence, information was the same, numbers swapped, ppts believed evidence that matched their moral position
What is Terror Management Theory?
We want to live but we know that we are doomed
Our unique awareness of death separates us from other animals
Culture is a human creation that helps us cope with this awareness
What are the cultural world views in terror management theory?
Provide people with symbolic or literal immortality, as well as a sense of coherence
Are defended more when mortality is salient
What is self-esteem in terror management theory?
Serves as a barometer of how well a person is living up to their cultural worldviews
Self-esteem is generally an anxiety buffer
It is defended as well more when mortality is salient
What is social facilitation?
The mere presence of others
What studies are there of social facilitation?
Allport (1924) audience & co-actors improved performace “social facilitation”
What is conformity?
A deep seated private and enduring change in behaviour and attitudes due to a group pressure
Who did the line judgement task?
Asch
What is persuasion?
When others TRY to influence us
What problems are there with persuasion?
Many elements that interact in complex ways
What features does a communicator have in persuasion?
Credibility
Attractiveness
Similarity
What is human aggression?
Human aggression is any behaviour directed toward another individual that is carried out with the proximate intent to cause harm. In addition, the perpetrator must believe that the behaviour will harm the target, and then the target is motivated to avoid the behaviour
What is Freud’s aggressive instinct theory of aggression?
The death instinct
Aggressive urges= normal, healthy and innate
What is catharsis?
Reduction of aggressive urges via aggressive expression
What is the ethology theory of aggression?
Aggression as innate & genetic
Promotes survival of the fittest- ensuring strongest & healthiest become parents/leaders
What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
Aggression NOT innate, frustration = cause of aggression, aggression is the dominant response to frustration
Aggression can be displaced- target or reaction
How can social learning create aggression?
Aggression is learned behaviour
Instrumental learning or observational learning
What is the script theory of aggression?
Pick up the cognitive aspects of learning
Aggression as cognitive schema or representation
What is the social interaction theory of aggression?
Aggression as a social influence behaviour
Actor as decision maker
Aggression used to- get things, get retribution, enact identities
What is the general aggression model?
Integrates other learning & cognitive theories
Inputs:traits, attitudes, values, situation factors
Routes: affect, cognition, arousal
How does the hydraulic model explain control of aggression?
Aggression is inevitable and controlled through catharsis
What is emotion?
A subjective sensation experienced as a type of psycho-physiological arousal
What dimensions do emotions vary along?
Arousal, intensity, type, origin, value, self-regulation
What do emotions result from?
Perception of environmental stimuli
A cognitive appraisal of a situation
Neural & Hormonal responses to perceptions
What are emotions functions?
Behavioural- prepare us for action, shape our behaviour, allow us to respond flexibly to our environment
Social- facilitate communication non-verbally, regulate social interaction, facilitate adult-child relations and thus development
What are the 3 important theories of emotions?
James-Lange theory of emotion
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?
The theory that emotional feelings result from an individual becoming aware of a physiological response to an emotion-provoking stimulus
What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?
The theory that an emotion-provoking stimulus is transmitted simultaneously to the brain, providing the feeling of emotion and to the sympathetic nervous system causing physiological arousal
What is the Schater-Singer theory of emotion?
A two-stage theory station that for an emotion to occur, there must be: physiological arousal, an explanation for the arousal (attribution)
Describe the Circumplex model of emotion
There are two dimensions that were found in a factor analysis of emotion terms: activation/arousal, pleasantness/valance
What is valance?
Valance refers to the intrinsic attractiveness or value assigned to; an object, an event, a situation, a goal, a stimuli an emotion etc.
Describe high arousal
Being alert and awake, high on energy levels and highly reactive to stimuli
What was the third dimension found in analysis of japanese emotion words?
Engagement with interpersonal relationships Socially engaged/disengaged
What are basic emotions?
Emotions that are found in all cultures, that are reflected in the same facial expressions across cultures, and that emerge in children according to their biological timetable
How is self-awareness tested?
The mirror test
What are the parts of the multi-faceted self?
Self-schemas
Social roles & the self-concept
The future self vs others
How is the future self usually perceived?
Positively, higher well-being, higher life-satisfaction
What is self-efficacy?
Competence & effectiveness
What are the four main sources of self-efficacy?
Mastery experiences, physiological feedback, Vicarious experience, verbal persuasion
What are the benefits of high self-efficacy?
Health maintenance and recovery Students and studentship Career success & good job performance Improved grades Responsibility
What is attachment?
The propensity of human beings to make strong affectional bonds to particular others
What are the 4 phases of attachment in adult romantic relationships?
Pre-attachment- e.g. flirting- seek partners, enthusiastic
Attachment in the making- e.g. falling in love- prefer partner, target social signals to the partner, verbal & physical intimacy
Clear cut attachment- loving
Goal-directed partnership- move from utter focus on partner to resumption of normal life
What does research suggest about adult attachment styles?
Continuity across different relationships, across time
Physical contact seeking- avoidant seek sexual contact, ambivalent seek emotionally intimate contact, secure seek both
What are the three components of love according to Sternberg’s triangular theory of love?
Intimacy
Passion
Commitment
What are the types of love?
Nonlove Liking Infatuation Empty love Romantic love Compassionate love Fatuous love
What is nonlove?
None of the elements e.g. lots of people we interact with
What is liking?
Only intimacy- closeness & warmth- ok if the person is absent e.g. friendship
What is infatuation?
Only passion- high heartbeat & turned on
No personal connection or commitment e.g. casual sex
What is empty love?
Only commitment- stay but not close or passionate, e.g. stagnant stage near end of relationship, arranged matches
What is romantic love?
Intimacy and passion- close and warm but also physically & sexually drawn to each other
What is compassionate love?
Intimacy & commitment, deep emotion but no sexual edge e.g. committed friendship, familial love
What is fatuous love?
Passion & commitment, make commitment based on passion, missing stability of intimacy
What are the signs of the commitment?
Stands by me, listens to me, spends time with me
or
Faithful to me, stands by me, there in good & bad times
What is social identity?
Social identity is the individual’s self-concept derived from perceived membership of social groups. Derives from knowledge of his or her membership in a social group, together with the value and emotional significance associated to that membership
What is social identity theory?
Introduces the concept of social identity in the context of an analysis of intergroup relations
What are the key elements of the social identity theory?
Social categorisation, social identity, social comparison and psychological group distinctiveness
What is social categorisation?
The cognitive tendency to divide the social world into categories
What is social comparison?
The process through which characteristics of the ingroup are compared to those of the outgroup
What is psychological group distinctiveness?
The state desired by individuals in which the in-group has an identity that is perceived by the group members as being both distinct and positive vis-a-vis relevant comparison groups
What is interpersonal interaction?
Is rare and involves people relating entirely as individuals, with no awareness of social categories
What is intergroup interaction?
When people relate entirely as representatives of their groups, and where one’s idiosyncratic, individualising qualities are overwhelmed by the salience of one’s group memberships
When does self-esteem occur?
When the in-group is perceived as superior to relevant out-groups
What does the amount of ingroup favouritism depend on?
The extent to which a person identifies with the in-group & to what extent the in-group is perceived as an aspect of the self-concept
The situational relevance of comparison of the group within a given context
The context features of the group such as the in-groups’ status or how easy you can become part of another group
What is self-categorisation theory?
Focus on intragroup relations as well, links social identity and the self
Group psychology underpinned by a cognitive act of self-categorisation
What does self-categorisation theory?
Depersonalisation, self-stereotyping and social influence
What is the 3 levels of identity are important to the self-concept?
Human Identity
Social Identity
Personal Identity
When are music preferences usually established?
During adolescence, a period characterised by a need for a sense of competence, social acceptance, and autonomy
What does identification with music-subcultures provide people with?
A sense of social belonging, identity and connectedness
What parts of the physiological response were measured in response to music?
GSR, temperature, heart rate, BVP amp, respiration
Which part of the nervous system is aroused in response to sedative music?
Parasympathetic NS
What part of the nervous system is aroused in response to stimulative music?
Sympathetic NS
What is culture?
The man-made part of the human environment
What are the advantages of cultural psychological research?
Valid study of human psychology- moving away from western hegemony
Theory expansion- study of the context in which it occurs, increasing range of variables
What is prosocial behaviour?
Acts that are valued positively by society
Behaviour that has positive social consequences and that contributes to the physical or psychological wellbeing of another person
What behaviour may be classed as prosocial behaviour?
Altruism, bystander intervention, charity, cooperation, friendship. helping, rescue, sacrifice, sharing, sympathy and trust
What is helping?
An intentional act that benefits another living being or group
What is empathy?
The ability to understand and share the feelings of another
What is altruism?
An intentional act that is motivated by the desire to benefit another rather than oneself
When do people help?
When helping is perceived as higher reward and low cost, when people perceive a higher similarity between themselves and the person who needs help, when there is communication between bystanders, when the helper has higher levels of empathy
When is there more weight in helping?
More weight to genetics in life or death situations
More weight to people who are needing help in mundane situations
Very young or old people, sick and very poor are more likely to be helped in mundane situations, but in life threatening situations 10 and 18 year olds are more likely to receive help
Why do people help?
Costs associated to not helping- guilt, loss of social status, trust, friendship, bad mood
Biological explanation- social behaviour an outcome of genetic heritage
Learning to be helpful
What are motives of prosocial behaviour?
Egoism
Altruism
Collectivism
Principals
