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Perfusion Flashcards

1
Q

What is perfusion?

A

The process by which the pulmonary and cardiac systems collaborate to circulate oxygenated blood throughout the organs and tissues.

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2
Q

What are the key components of the cardiac and pulmonary systems’ collaboration?

A
  • Heart pumps oxygen-rich blood
  • Lungs oxygenate the blood
  • Ensures vital supply to the entire body
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3
Q

What are the potential impacts of impaired perfusion?

A
  • Affects self-care
  • Impairs mobility
  • Alters fluid status
  • Compromises tissue integrity
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4
Q

What are the four chambers of the heart?

A
  • Right Atrium
  • Right Ventricle
  • Left Atrium
  • Left Ventricle
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5
Q

What are the layers of the heart wall?

A
  • Endocardium
  • Myocardium
  • Epicardium
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6
Q

What is the function of the sinoatrial (SA) node?

A

It serves as the primary pacemaker of the heart, initiating impulses at a rate of 60-100 bpm.

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7
Q

What are the phases of the cardiac action potential?

A
  • Polarization
  • Depolarization
  • Repolarization
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8
Q

Fill in the blank: The _______ system transports deoxygenated blood from the right heart to the lungs.

A

Pulmonary

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9
Q

What is cardiac output (CO)?

A

The amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute, calculated as Stroke Volume (SV) x Heart Rate (HR).

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10
Q

What are the key factors affecting cardiac output?

A
  • Heart Rate
  • Contractility
  • Preload
  • Afterload
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11
Q

What are the two main pathways in the coagulation cascade?

A
  • Intrinsic Pathway
  • Extrinsic Pathway
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12
Q

What does coronary artery disease (CAD) result from?

A

Plaque buildup in coronary arteries leading to decreased blood flow.

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13
Q

What are common manifestations of hypertension?

A
  • Often asymptomatic until severe
  • Headaches
  • Dizziness
  • Nausea
  • Nosebleeds
  • Fatigue
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14
Q

True or False: Secondary hypertension is due to other conditions like kidney disease.

A

True

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15
Q

What lifestyle modifications can help improve cardiovascular health?

A
  • Healthy diet
  • Regular exercise
  • Smoking cessation
  • Stress reduction
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16
Q

What are the types of heart valves?

A
  • Atrioventricular (AV) valves: Tricuspid and mitral
  • Semilunar valves: Pulmonary and aortic
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17
Q

What is the normal range for cardiac output?

A

4-8 L/min

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18
Q

What is the significance of the P-QRS-T sequence?

A

It represents one heartbeat.

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19
Q

What is the role of the AV node in the cardiac conduction system?

A

Delays the impulse to allow the atria to contract before the ventricles.

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20
Q

What are common assessment findings in patients with CAD?

A
  • Chest pain/discomfort
  • Shortness of breath
  • Cold, clammy skin
  • Indigestion/fullness sensation
  • Dizziness
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21
Q

Fill in the blank: The _______ is the term for the wave of blood created by the left ventricle’s contraction.

A

Pulse

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22
Q

What does the term ‘dyspnea’ indicate?

A

A decrease in oxygenated blood, often associated with difficulty breathing.

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23
Q

What are some common diagnostic tests used to evaluate cardiac function?

A
  • Blood Pressure Screening
  • Lipid Panel
  • ECG & Stress Tests
  • Stress Echocardiography
  • Electron-Beam CT
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24
Q

What are the symptoms of cardiogenic shock?

A
  • Inadequate tissue perfusion
  • Confusion
  • Rapid heart rate
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25
Q

What is the impact of respiratory acidosis on oxygenation?

A

It leads to increased CO2 and decreased oxygenation.

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26
Q

What are the key risk factors for coronary artery disease?

A
  • Family history
  • High cholesterol
  • Hypertension
  • Smoking
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27
Q

What is the treatment for valvular heart disease?

A
  • Medications
  • Lifestyle changes
  • Surgery
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28
Q

What is the significance of jugular vein distension (JVD)?

A

It indicates increased central venous pressure.

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29
Q

What are the symptoms of left-sided congestive heart failure?

A
  • Shortness of breath
  • Wet cough
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30
Q

What lifestyle change can significantly reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease?

A

Smoking cessation

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31
Q

What is the primary intervention for managing hypertension?

A

Encouraging lifestyle changes such as reduced sodium intake and regular exercise.

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32
Q

What are the two types of cardiac circulation?

A
  • Pulmonary Circulation
  • Systemic Circulation
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33
Q

What are the manifestations of coronary artery disease?

A
  • Chest pain/discomfort
  • Shortness of breath
  • Cold, clammy skin
  • Dizziness
  • Anxiety
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34
Q

What vital signs should be obtained during a comprehensive cardiovascular assessment?

A

BP, Pulse, Temperature, Respiratory Rate, O2 Saturation, Pain.

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35
Q

What should be inspected regarding skin during a cardiovascular assessment?

A

Skin color and temperature (even, homogeneous).

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36
Q

What are the characteristics of normal respirations to assess?

A

Regular and unlabored.

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37
Q

What should be checked for in the eyes and lips during inspection?

A

Symmetrical eyes with pink conjunctivae and smooth texture of lips.

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38
Q

What does flat jugular veins indicate when assessed in an upright position?

A

Normal finding.

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39
Q

What is the significance of palpating the precordium and carotid pulses?

A

To check for tenderness, swelling, or crepitus.

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40
Q

Where is the Aortic Valve auscultated?

A

2nd ICS at RSB.

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41
Q

Where is the Pulmonic Valve auscultated?

A

2nd ICS at LSB.

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42
Q

Where is Erb’s Point located?

A

3rd ICS at LSB.

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43
Q

Where is the Mitral Valve auscultated?

A

5th ICS at MCL.

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44
Q

What does S1 signify during auscultation?

A

Closure of the mitral and tricuspid valves, heard at the beginning of systole.

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45
Q

What does S2 signify during auscultation?

A

Closure of the aortic and pulmonic valves, heard at the beginning of diastole.

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46
Q

True or False: Simultaneous palpation of the carotid pulse helps differentiate S1 from S2.

A

True.

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47
Q

What does impaired perfusion lead to regarding acid-base balance?

A

Retention of acids.

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48
Q

What should be monitored to assess perfusion status?

A

BP, HR, oxygen saturation, and physical signs like skin color and mental status.

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49
Q

What condition is indicated by low hemoglobin?

A

Reduced oxygen delivery.

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50
Q

What should be assessed in cognition regarding perfusion?

A

Hypoxemia and altered mental status.

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51
Q

What can inadequate perfusion lead to in terms of comfort?

A

Pain in tissues.

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52
Q

Fill in the blank: Hypervolemia or hypovolemia can lead to altered _______.

A

perfusion.

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53
Q

What is the normal range for Total Cholesterol?

A

< 200 mg/dL.

54
Q

What is the normal range for Triglycerides?

A

< 150 mg/dL.

55
Q

What is the normal range for LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein)?

A

< 100 mg/dL.

56
Q

What is the normal range for HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) for females?

A

> 40 mg/dL.

57
Q

What is the normal range for HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) for males?

A

> 55 mg/dL.

58
Q

What is the normal range for D-Dimer?

A

< 0.5 mcg/mL.

59
Q

What is the normal range for BNP (B-type Natriuretic Peptide)?

A

< 100 pg/mL.

60
Q

What is the normal range for Cardiac Output (CO)?

A

4-8 L/min.

61
Q

What is the normal range for Cardiac Index (CI)?

A

2.5 - 4.0 L/min/m².

62
Q

What is the normal range for Central Venous Pressure (CVP)?

A

2 - 8 mmHg.

63
Q

What is the normal range for Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)?

A

70 - 100 mmHg.

64
Q

What is the normal range for Systemic Vascular Resistance (SVR)?

A

800 - 1200 dynes/sec/cm.

65
Q

What is hyperlipidemia?

A

A condition characterized by high levels of lipids (fats) in the blood.

66
Q

What is atherosclerosis?

A

A disease of the arteries where plaque accumulates in the artery walls.

67
Q

What is Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)?

A

A type of atherosclerosis affecting the coronary arteries that supply the heart muscle.

68
Q

What leads to chest pain (angina) in CAD?

A

Plaque buildup in coronary arteries, reducing blood flow.

69
Q

List the modifiable risk factors for atherosclerosis.

A
  • High LDL cholesterol
  • Low HDL cholesterol
  • Hypertension
  • Smoking
  • Alcohol consumption
  • Diabetes
  • Obesity
  • Sedentary lifestyle
  • Unhealthy diet
  • Nephrotic Syndrome
  • Liver Diseases.
70
Q

List the non-modifiable risk factors for atherosclerosis.

A
  • Family history
  • Familial Hypercholesterolemia
  • Polygenic Hypercholesterolemia
  • Age
  • Male gender
  • Post-menopausal status.
71
Q

What are common physical findings of hyperlipidemia?

A
  • Asymptomatic
  • Xanthelasma/Xanthomas
  • Eruptive Xanthomas
  • Corneal Arcus
  • Obesity/High BMI.
72
Q

What are common physical findings of atherosclerosis?

A
  • Carotid Bruits
  • Diminished Peripheral Pulses
  • Cool, Pale Extremities
  • Delayed Capillary Refill
  • Intermittent Claudication.
73
Q

What are the general presentations of coronary artery disease?

A
  • May be asymptomatic
  • Chest pain (angina)
  • Shortness of Breath (Dyspnea)
  • Diaphoresis
  • Epigastric distress (heartburn)
  • Fatigue
  • Peripheral Edema.
74
Q

What is the significance of elevated Troponin I levels?

A

Suggests myocardial damage; possible silent heart attack or angina.

75
Q

What is a nursing action for managing coronary artery disease?

A

Monitor Vital Signs.

76
Q

What are common side effects of Atorvastatin (Lipitor)?

A
  • Headache
  • Muscle pain
  • Nausea
  • Constipation
  • Diarrhea.
77
Q

What is the mechanism of statins?

A

Inhibit HMG-CoA reductase, reducing LDL levels and slightly increasing HDL.

78
Q

What should be monitored when administering statins?

A

Liver function tests and signs of muscle pain or weakness.

79
Q

What is the definition of hypertension?

A

A chronic medical condition characterized by consistently elevated blood pressure levels.

80
Q

What is known as the ‘Silent Killer’?

A

Hypertension, because it often has no symptoms until significant organ damage occurs.

81
Q

What is the normal blood pressure range?

A

< 120/80 mmHg.

82
Q

What defines Stage 1 Hypertension?

A

130-139/80-89 mmHg.

83
Q

What defines Stage 2 Hypertension?

A

≥ 140/90 mmHg.

84
Q

What is a hypertensive crisis?

A

Systolic > 180 and/or Diastolic > 120.

85
Q

What is the formula for Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)?

A

MAP = (⅓ Systolic BP) + (⅔ Diastolic BP).

86
Q

What factors affect blood pressure?

A
  • Cardiac Output (CO)
  • Systemic Vascular Resistance (SVR).
87
Q

What does the sympathetic nervous system do in relation to blood pressure?

A

Senses changes in MAP and triggers increased HR.

88
Q

What does iac Output (CO) refer to?

A

Volume of blood pumped by the heart.

Influenced by ventricular filling and pumping ability.

89
Q

What is Systemic Vascular Resistance (SVR)?

A

Resistance encountered by blood as it flows through the circulatory system.

Determined by blood viscosity, vessel length, and vessel diameter.

90
Q

What influences blood viscosity in relation to SVR?

A

Thicker blood = more resistance.

91
Q

What is the impact of vessel length on SVR?

A

Longer vessels = more resistance.

92
Q

How does vessel diameter affect SVR?

A

Smaller diameter = higher resistance.

93
Q

What triggers the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) in regulating blood pressure?

A

Senses changes in MAP → Triggers increased HR, CO, and arteriole constriction → Raises BP.

94
Q

What is the role of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)?

A

Renal perfusion ↓ → Renin release → Angiotensin I → Angiotensin II (vasoconstrictor) → BP ↑.

95
Q

What does aldosterone release lead to?

A

Sodium and water retention → BP ↑.

96
Q

What are the effects of Epinephrine and Norepinephrine on blood pressure?

A

Increase HR and BP.

97
Q

What is the effect of Vasopressin (ADH)?

A

Vasoconstriction and water retention.

98
Q

What do Atrial & Brain Natriuretic Peptides do?

A

Vasodilation and increased urine output.

99
Q

What is arteriosclerosis?

A

Hardening of arteries → Decreased compliance.

100
Q

What is atherosclerosis?

A

Plaque buildup → Increased resistance → Hypertension (HTN).

101
Q

What defines Normal Blood Pressure for adults?

A

Less than 120/80 mmHg.

102
Q

What is considered Elevated Blood Pressure?

A

Begins when Systolic BP rises above 120 mmHg, while Diastolic remains below 80 mmHg.

103
Q

What is Primary Hypertension (Essential HTN)?

A

Elevated BP without a known cause.

104
Q

What percentage of hypertension cases does Primary Hypertension account for?

105
Q

What are the risk factors for Primary Hypertension?

A
  • Family history
  • Age
  • Race
  • High sodium intake
  • Obesity
  • Sedentary lifestyle
106
Q

What is Secondary Hypertension?

A

Elevated BP due to a known underlying cause.

107
Q

What percentage of hypertension cases does Secondary Hypertension account for?

108
Q

What are common causes of Secondary Hypertension?

A
  • Kidney Disease
  • Endocrine Disorders
  • Pheochromocytoma
  • Coarctation of the Aorta
  • Neurologic Disorders
  • Medications
  • Pregnancy
  • Obstructive Sleep Apnea
109
Q

What are Non-Modifiable Risk Factors for Hypertension?

A
  • Age
  • Gender
  • Genetics/Family History
  • Race/Ethnicity
  • Personal History of Preexisting Conditions
  • Congenital Factors
  • Genetic Disorders
110
Q

What are Modifiable Risk Factors for Hypertension?

A
  • High Sodium Intake
  • Low Potassium Intake
  • High Cholesterol Levels
  • Excessive Alcohol Consumption
  • Obesity
  • Physical Inactivity
  • Smoking
  • Stress
  • Poor Sleep Patterns
  • Substance Abuse
  • Excessive Caffeine Intake
111
Q

What are common symptoms of hypertension when present?

A
  • Headaches
  • Dizziness/Lightheadedness
  • Blurred Vision
  • Epistaxis (Nosebleeds)
  • Fatigue
  • Palpitations
  • Shortness of Breath (Dyspnea)
  • Chest Pain (Angina)
  • Anxiety/Irritability
112
Q

What does an elevated Blood Pressure reading indicate?

A

Systolic BP ≥ 130 mmHg or Diastolic BP ≥ 80 mmHg.

113
Q

What are potential complications of uncontrolled hypertension?

A
  • Heart Failure
  • Myocardial Infarction (MI)
  • Stroke/Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)
  • Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
  • Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD)
  • Hypertensive Crisis
114
Q

What is the starting dose for Hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ)?

A

12.5 - 25 mg/day PO.

115
Q

What side effects should be monitored for with Hydrochlorothiazide?

A
  • Hypokalemia
  • Dehydration
  • Hyperglycemia
116
Q

What is the starting dose for Spironolactone (Aldactone)?

A

25 mg/day PO.

117
Q

What side effects should be monitored for with Spironolactone?

A
  • Hyperkalemia
  • Gynecomastia
  • Menstrual Irregularities
118
Q

What is the starting dose for Enalapril (Vasotec)?

A

5 mg/day PO.

119
Q

What side effects should be monitored for with Enalapril?

A
  • Cough
  • Hyperkalemia
  • Angioedema
120
Q

What is the starting dose for Losartan (Cozaar)?

A

50 mg/day PO.

121
Q

What side effects should be monitored for with Losartan?

A
  • Hyperkalemia
  • Dizziness
  • Renal Dysfunction
122
Q

What is the starting dose for Nifedipine (Procardia)?

A

30 mg/day PO.

123
Q

What side effects should be monitored for with Nifedipine?

A
  • Peripheral Edema
  • Gingival Hyperplasia
  • Flushing and Dizziness
124
Q

What is the starting dose for Doxazosin (Cardura)?

A

1 mg/day PO.

125
Q

What side effects should be monitored for with Doxazosin?

A
  • Orthostatic Hypotension
  • Dizziness and Fainting
  • Nasal Congestion
126
Q

What is the starting dose for Hydralazine?

A

10 - 25 mg/day PO.

127
Q

What side effects should be monitored for with Hydralazine?

A
  • Reflex Tachycardia
  • Lupus-like Syndrome
  • Peripheral Edema
128
Q

What should be assessed baseline for patients on antihypertensive medications?

A

Baseline BP and monitor frequently.

129
Q

What should patients be taught regarding antihypertensive medications?

A

Do not abruptly stop these medications (rebound HTN).

130
Q

What laboratory findings are elevated due to hypertension?

A
  • Elevated BUN
  • Elevated Creatinine
  • Elevated Blood Glucose
  • Abnormal Lipid Profile
  • Elevated BNP

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