Perception and Cognition Flashcards
Sigmund Freud
Early psychologist. Claimed to be able to access the contents of the mind directly.
Scientific Method
- Observation
- Literature Review
- Formulate hypothesis
- Design a Study
- Collect data
- Analyze data
- Draw conclusions
- Report findings
- Peer review
- Theory development
Loftus and Pickrell (1995)
False Memory Study
Individualistic Cultures
Placing one’s own needs above others. Emphasis autonomy and pursuit if personal goals.
Collectivistic Cultures
Emphasize maintaining relationships and social harmony. Prioritize the good of the group over individual wants.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
- Basic needs
- Psychological needs
- Esteem needs
- Self-fulfillment needs (self actualization)
Watson and Rayner (1920)
Little Albert study
the “behavior” component of psychology
actions and decisions
The “mind” component of psychology`
Subjective experiences. Thoughts, memories, emotions and personality traits
The “Brain” component of psychology
Biological and chemical processes that occur in the presence of a stimulus.
Drive reduction
A state of relief and reward produces by removing tension of drive state.
Drive
A state of tension and arousal triggered by cues important for survival.
Optic Tracts
Carry information beyond the optic chiasm to the thalamus
Bipolar cells
Receive input from horizontal cells and photo receptors causing inhibition or excitation
Spike Rate
Number of action potentials per unit of time.
Action Potential
Neuronal firing
Horizontal cells
Integrate and modulate the output of rods and cones. contributes to contrast perception and adaptation to bright and dark conditions.
Ganglion Cells
Relay retinal input to visual processing centers. THE ONLY NEURONS IN THE RETINA THAT FIRE ACTION POTENTIALS.
Selective Attention
Ability to focus on a subset of the available information and ignore the rest.
Structuralism
Early school of thought. Belief that the mind could be broken down into smaller components such as sensations, feelings and thoughts.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain and spinal cord. Central source of messages being sent to anywhere in the body.
Synapse
Point of communication between two neurons.
Nervous System
Responsible for controlling your movements, body processes, thoughts, and automatic responses to the world around you.
Amacrine Cells
Decode signal from bipolar cells. Meditate processing of visual signal to ganglion cells.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Nerves that branch out all over the body. Relays information to organs, arms, legs, fingers, and toes.
Schachter - Singer Two Factor Theory of Emotion
Physical sensations cause us to appraise the environment, which contributes to our subjective feelings.
Perceived stimulus –> physical sensations–> Assess surroundings–>Subjective feeling
Sensory Adaptation
Reduced neural response to an unchanging stimulus.
Cones
Detects color. About 6 million in each eye.
Rods
Detect light and dark. Have about 120 million in each eye.
Optic Nerve
Where information leaves the eye and connects to the brain.
Optic disc
“Blind spot” where we have no photo receptors.
Perception
The process of interpreting sensory information. How the brain labels the physical sensations detected by our other organs.
Transduction
Process of translating sensory information into neural activity
Sensation
Process of detecting stimuli from the environment. Sensory organs.
Psychology
Scientific study of brain functions, mental processes and behavior
Paul Ekman’s Universal Emotions Hypothesis
Humans are born with 6 basic emotions which are expressed in common ways across all cultures.
Nature
Born with emotions and we evolved to experience specific emotions
Nurture
Emotional experiences and expressions are learned. Defined by culture and socialization.
Amotiviation
Not motivated because they do not perceive the any reward for behavior.
Homeostasis
A state of internal balance.
Neurotransmitter
Chemical messenger that communicates across a synapse.
Glutamate
Primary neurotransmitter involved in communication between the neurons in the retina.
Resting potential
Neurons naturally carry a charge of about -70 milliVolts
Graded Potential
Charge in membrane.
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)
Increased membrane potential
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)
Reduced membrane potential.
Difference Threshold
Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.
Absolute Sensory Threshold
Smallest about of sensation that can be processed.
Signal Detection Theory
Method for determining an individual’s threshold for making different types of decisions.
Cornea
Clear surface at the front fo the eye that begins the process of directing light to the retina.
Iris
Colored muscle that contracts to change the size of the pupil.
Pupil
Opening formed by the iris where light enters the eye.
Lens
The clear structure behind the pupil. Bends light toward the retina.
Retina
Layers of visual processing cells in the back of the eye.
Fovea
Area of the retina that is specialized for highly detailed vision.
External Regulation
Extrinsic Motivation. Engaging in a behavior to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment.
Introjected Regulation
Extrinsic motivation. Engaging in behavior to maintain personal expectations or avoid guilt.
Identified Regulations
Extrinsic motivation. A person who truly values the behavior even though they may not enjoy it.
Intrinsic Motivation to…Experience
Engaging in a behavior because one finds it exciting or stimulating
Intrinsic Motivation to…Accomplish
A behavior for the purpose of satisfaction of accomplishing a task, feeling competent or creating something.
Intrinsic Motivation to…Know
Engaging in a behavior for the purpose of learning or exploring something new.
Intrinsic Rewards
Rewards that arise internally feeling of accomplishment when a task is complete.
Retinal Neurons
Pass information from photo receptors to the optic nerve.
Motivation
Process that energizes guides and maintains behavior toward a goal.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
Psychological Treatment. Talk therapy.
Cognitive Reappraisal
Reinterpreting the meaning and significance of the situation in a more positive or adaptive way.
Appraisals
Detection and assessment of stimuli with relevance for one’s personal well-being.
Hippocampus
Formation of memories for facts and events. Helps in recognizing if situations are threatening or safe.
Slow Pathway
Sensory Information–>Thalamus–>Visual Cortex–>Amygdala–>Response
Fast Pathway
Sensory Information–>Thalamus–>Amygdala–>Response
Psychophysics
Study of the relationship between physical qualities of stimuli and the subjective responses they produce.
Top-Down Processing
Process in which memory and other cognitive processes are required for interpreting sensory information.
Bottom-Up Processing
Perception is based on building simple input into more complex perceptions. Attracts our attention with color, movement, or intensity.
Thalamus
Receives input from sensory systems and projects to information to the appropriate region of the central cortex
Amygdala
Processes the emotional significance of stimuli.
Enteric Nervous System
Relays messages related to the gastrointestinal system.
Hypothalamus
Regulating and coordinating the body’s physiological responses to emotional stimuli.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Prepares the body for rest, repair and energy storage
Limbic System
Cannon-Bard theory says the Limbic System is part of the brain that interprets stimuli and regulates physical sensations.
-Hypothalamus
-Amygdala
-Hippocampus
-Thalamus
-Cingulate Gyrus
-Corpus Callosum
Sympathetic Nervous System
Prepares the body for situations that require the expenditure of energy. Arousal or one physiological level of alertness.
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Physical sensations and subjective feelings occur simultaneously and independently.
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Sensations lead to subjective feelings
Functionalism
Early school of thought. Belief that mental processes exist because they serve specific functions in helping individuals survive and fulfill their needs.
Gestalt Psychology
Early School of Thought. The belief that experience is not just the sum of our perceptions, its influenced by the organization and grouping of elements into meaningful wholes or patterns.
Autonomic Nervous System
Controls the activities that your body does without thinking about them.
Somatic Nervous System
Relays information from the sensory organs to and from the CNS and guides your voluntary movements.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
Neuroplasticity
The selective organizing of connections between neurons in our brain, based on our experiences.
Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which associations are formed between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time.
Operant Conditioning
Type of learning in which associations are formed between voluntary behaviors and their outcomes.
Contingency
Stimuli repeatedly occur together, such that the presence of one stimulus reliably predicts the presence of the other.
Contiguity
Stimuli occur close together in time.
Generalization
A conditioned response to one object is exhibited in the presence of similar stimuli.
Counter conditioning
Substituting one conditioned response with another.
Aversion Therapy
Systematic desensitization. Conditioning an organism to be repelled by an addictive substance.
Exposure Therapy
Treating phobias by exposing people to feared stimuli until they no longer respond.
Spontaneous Recovery
Reappearance of a conditioned response during extinction training following periods of rest.
Inhibition
Conditioned stimulus predicts the non-occurrence of an unconditioned stimulus.
Systematic Desensitization
Associations between the phobic stimulus and fear are replaced with a positive emotion.
Clever Hans
Horse who could apparently count. Learned when to stop after receiving the reactions from crowds.
Associative learning
The formation of associations or connection among stimuli and behaviors.
Reinforcement
Positive - Adding something good to increase the behavior
Negative - Removing something aversive to decrease the behavior.
Punishment
Positive - Adding something aversive to decrease the behavior.
Negative - removing something good to decrease the behavior.
Primary Reinforcement
Support our natural need for survival.
Secondary Reinforcement
Gain value and ability to influence behavior from being associated with other things that are valued.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing a behavior every time the behavior occurs.
Partial Reinforcement
Reinforcing a behavior on some occasions but not others
Fixed Ratio Schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a certain number of behaviors.
Fixed Interval Schedule
Reinforcement occurs after the behavior has continued for a certain duration.
Variable Ratio Schedule
Reinforcement occurs after some variable number of behaviors.
Variable Interval Schedule
Reinforcement occurs at variable times.
Evolutionary Perspective
Actions that help us survive are good and should be repeated.
Dopamine
Neurotransmitter that produces a subjective feeling of pleasure when released in the reward system
Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
Structure that initiates dopamine release in response to a behavior.
Nucleus Accumbens
Integrate dopamine signaling from the VTA with production error.
Prefrontal Cortex
Assess the value of rewards and exert control over behavior.
ABA Therapy
Use of token reward system to modify behavior in autistic children.
Phoneme
Smallest component of speech SOUND
Morpheme
Smallest component of speech carries meaning.
Linguistic Relativity Theory
Our opinion of the world is shaped by the semantic categories of our native language.
Critical Period Hypothesis
There is an ideal time during brain development for language acquisition, after which learning a language becomes more difficult and effortful.
B.F. Skinner - Behaviorist Perspective
Language is learned.
Naom Chomsky
Universal grammar.
Wernicke’s Area
Located in the Temporal Lobe. Responsible for language comprehension.
Wernicke’s Aphasia
A deficiency in language comprehension caused by damage to the Wernicke’s Area.
Broca’s Area
Located in the Frontal Lobe. Responsible for language production.
Broca’s Aphasia
A deficit in language production caused by damage to Broca’s Area.
Musical Innotation Theory
Individuals are encouraged to sing or chant phrases and emphasize pitch variations.
Cognition
Internal mental processes including information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving.
Representation = concepts
Mental groupings of similar objects, people, ideas, or events.activating
Representational Cues
Ways of activiating a particular concept or mental representation.
Analogical Cues
Bear physical similarity to the concepts that they represent.
Symbolic Cues
Used to represent a concept but do not bear any physical similarity to the object
Exemplar
A specific example of a category that was actually observed.
Exemplar Models
Categorize new item based on features that frequently overlap with labeled exemplars.
Prototype
A single standard or average representation of a category
Prototype models
Categorize new item based on the most similar prototype.
Stereotypes
A concept involving generalized beliefs and attributes about a particular group of people.
Speed-Accuracy Trade Off
The inverse relationship between speed and accuracy, such that completing a task quickly often comes at the cost of how accurately it is done.
Heuristic
Shortcut to problem-solving; also called a rule of thumb.
Availability Heuristic
the frequency of an event’s occurrence is predicted by the ease with which the event id brought to mind.
Recognition Heuristic
Higher value is placed on the more easily recognized alternative.
Representativeness Heuristic
Stimuli that are more similar to a prototype are believed to be more likely.
Affect Heuristic
Choosing between alternatives based on emotional or “gut” reactions to stimuli.
