Peer Relationships in Childhood Flashcards
Peer Interaction: Infancy and the Toddler Period
o 2 mo, infants are aroused by the presence of peers and try to engage with them
o 6 mo, smile, vocalize, and reach towards peers
o 6-9 mo, more complex, such as looking while vocalizing at one peer
o 2 yrs, now with increased locomotion and speech abilities, attempts are predictable, complex, coordinated, and lengthy
o by toddler years, children mimic mainly peers over adults
Peer Interaction: The Preschool Years
o by 3yr, children are willing to engage in lengthy social interaction, using symbols
• unoccupied behavior || solitary play || onlooker behavior || parallel play || associated play || cooperative play – Parten’s breakdown of interactions
o social-communicative understanding → more prosocial, cooperative, behavior
• but increased chance for instrumental aggression
• Beyond Preschool Years
o social skills, communication, and their rules increase with age
Children’s Changing Conceptions of Friendship
in early/middle childhood – friends live close by and have nice toys
o in late childhood – those who are loyal and share values
o in adolescences – those with similar interests/understands, are emotionally close
o these changes occur due to shifts in perspectives, a better understanding of reciprocity and many other unrelated themes
The Prevalence and Stability of Friendship
o typically most children have at least one mutual friend
• but this is hard to measure due to individual beliefs of friendship
o friendships are more unstable in the adolescent years
• now more exclusive and puberty is linked with a change in interests
Similarities Between Friendships
o children form friendships based on similar observable characteristics, similar behavioral tendencies, (hobbies, academic achievement, popularity, etc)
Behaviors Between Friends
o more altruistic acts, cooperation, positive affect, task orientation
o friends engage in more conflicts than non-friends
• resolutions are teaching methods for greater interaction
Gender Related Issues
o boys expect reciprocity, girls want it but do not necessarily expect it to occur
o girls relations are more intimate with less conflict than boys
• may lead to more conflict later on, while terminating friendship
o boys more interested in academic performance, ability, popularity, etc of friends
Children without Friends
o 15-20% of children lack the proper social skills/behavior for peer interaction
• associated with more internalized difficulties and peer victimization
o lacking a friend by 5th grade decreases one’s self-worth
• having just one friend alleviates the negative effects
Friendship and Adjustment
o better psychological healthy and ability to react healthy in stressful times
• however, can cause overthinking of situations → anxiety, depression
Friendship and Shy/Withdrawn Children
o “misery loves friendships” → become friends with similar peers – no disruptions
Friendship and Externalizing Children
o aggressive children form friendships with other aggressive children, but will typically encounter more aggression within these relationships
The Peer Group as a Social Context
o in middle childhood shift from group of peers to peer group identity
• changes in identity, social-cognitive ability
o peer group is a social context linked by group norms and values and collective guidance
Peer Group Functions
o according to Fine, group functioning teaches cooperative, goal driven skills, social structure, leadership, self-control, redirection of aggression
• strong peer networks→decrease in drop outs, pregnancy, delinquency
Cliques and Crowds
o cliques label the crowds
o crowd membership is important: informs individuals of expected rules to abide by, encourages identity acceptance or alteration, influences cognitive views
Methodological Issues in the Study of Peer Groups
o Social Network Analysis (SNA) – based on friendship nominations
• who they spend time with? detects groups, liaisons, dyads, isolates
o Social Cognitive Maps (SCM) – assess peer groups directly
• forms interconnected circles of people
Examining the Contextual Effect of the Peer Group
o peer groups encourage link between academic and social functioning
o academically weak children have social problems
Assessing the Quality of Children’s Peer Relationships
o perceived popularity – those that think they are popular, and may be highly visible within a group setting, but are not liked greatly by many
o adults and children have a somewhat fair understanding of quality relationships of children, though both are biased
Assessments of Peer Acceptance
o using sociometric popular children, have discovered 5 categories of acceptance
• popular, controversial, rejected. neglected, and average
• the more extreme categories tend to be consistent over time
o can also have children rate each of their peers
o is this ethical though?
Behavioral Correlates of Peer Acceptance
Sociometerically popular
• prosocial, positive relationships, assertive, leaders, non-arrogant
Perceived popular
• human, attractive styles, wealthy, athletic
Controversial
• combo of positive and negatively viewed social behaviors
Neglected
• less interaction, aggression, sociability, withdrawn, and shy
Rejected
• commonly due to instrumental/relational aggression, Bullying
• relational is a way to assert popularity
Rubin and Rose’s social information processing model
When encountering a problem, children select a goal, examine the environment, asses strategies, implement one, and evaluate outcome
Crick and Doge’s social cognitive model
Encode social cues, interpret them, clarify goal, generate potential response, evaluate their worth, implement
Arsenio’s social cognitive model
Integrated emotional experiences
o children must have strategies in order to problem solve
• exact strategies repertoire reflects child’s social personality
Cognitions and Feelings about the Self and Peer Acceptance
o perceived social competence→ trust in own peer acceptance and impersonal skills
• disconnect between reality and belief → leads to social problems
Outcomes of Peer Relationship Difficulties
o peer rejection → range of externalizing problems (i.e. antisocial behaviors) and internalizing problems (i.e. low self-esteem)
Temperament and Peer Relationships
o temperament = biological basis for affect arousal, expression, and regulation
o 3 groups of temperamental traits associated with social functioning:
Resistance to control (manageability)
• lack of attention, agreeableness, but craving reward
Negative affect (reactivity)
• easily angered, frustrated, and provoked
Shyness/inhibition
• wary of social and novel situations
Parenting and Peer Relationships
o parent-child relationships provide a safety-net for freedom, aids in development of social expectancies and interactions
o influenced by attachment theory – the exact type influences the infant’s internal working models and how it behaves socially
• type A – insecure avoidant: hostile and aggressive
• type B – secure: willing to explore and engage
• type C – insecure-ambivalent: inhibited, whiny, easily frustrated
• type D – disorganized: aggressive
Parenting Behaviors and Peer Relationships
o parents can influence the development of quality social behaviors by
• by providing opportunities for peer interactions, monitoring peer encounters, coaching children on interpersonal skills, disciplining unacceptable behaviors → leads to more popular children
o authoritarian parenting styles work best
Culture and Peer Relationships
Not much research on this topic but some things are known
o autonomy + assertiveness are more acceptable in Western Cultures
o conformity and interdependence is accepted in Latino cultures
o aggressive children are often rejected in China, while shy kids are considered better adjusted.
Ethnic Context of Peer Victimization (Graham article)
• considering the context most likely encourages this type of behavior, examined what would happen if diversity of a setting increased
o if everyone was different, believed there would be less of a reason to victimize
• as diversity increased, less victimization, and feelings of loneliness, with increased feelings of school safety and self-worth → ethnic diversity is a protective factor
Ethnicity and the Consequences of Peer Harassment (Graham article)
How does an ethnic context influence the consequences of peer victimization?
o who felt the worst?
• social misfits – negative outcomes of an individual whose stemming from deviations from the group norms
• if a victim is a member of the majority, the effects are reported as being worse
o those who are the majority and victims, tend to experience most self-blame
Conclusion
• ethnicity is a context variable for victimization
Understanding Popularity in the Peer System – A. Cillessen & A. Rose
Sociometrically popular – well-like by others, displaying high levels of prosocial behavior, and low levels of aggression
• sociometeric popular children tend to adjust well to future settings
o strong friendships, well adjusted on emotional level
Perceived popular – aggressive and prosocial, with others wishing to be like them
o expects immediate rewards, achieve goals via aggressive means
o authors expect 1 of 2 paths: either continued popularity, or loss of it
o aggression is both overt (generalized) and relational (targeting)
o it is used to achieve or maintain perceived popularity - dominance
• manipulate others for benefit of self
• may encourage antisocial behavior of peers
Robert Selman’s Model of Growing Friendship
- immaturity/egocentric
- development of prosocial competence
- maturity and societal perspective
- social skills, reinforced by
a. friendship understanding
b. friendship skills
c. friendship valuing
