Peer Relationships in Childhood

Question 1

Peer Interaction: Infancy and the Toddler Period

Answer 1

o 2 mo, infants are aroused by the presence of peers and try to engage with them
o 6 mo, smile, vocalize, and reach towards peers
o 6-9 mo, more complex, such as looking while vocalizing at one peer
o 2 yrs, now with increased locomotion and speech abilities, attempts are predictable, complex, coordinated, and lengthy
o by toddler years, children mimic mainly peers over adults

Question 2

Peer Interaction: The Preschool Years

Answer 2

o by 3yr, children are willing to engage in lengthy social interaction, using symbols
• unoccupied behavior || solitary play || onlooker behavior || parallel play || associated play || cooperative play – Parten’s breakdown of interactions
o  social-communicative understanding → more prosocial, cooperative, behavior
• but increased chance for instrumental aggression
• Beyond Preschool Years
o social skills, communication, and their rules increase with age

Question 3

Children’s Changing Conceptions of Friendship

Answer 3

in early/middle childhood – friends live close by and have nice toys
o in late childhood – those who are loyal and share values
o in adolescences – those with similar interests/understands, are emotionally close
o these changes occur due to shifts in perspectives, a better understanding of reciprocity and many other unrelated themes

Question 4

The Prevalence and Stability of Friendship

Answer 4

o typically most children have at least one mutual friend
• but this is hard to measure due to individual beliefs of friendship
o friendships are more unstable in the adolescent years
• now more exclusive and puberty is linked with a change in interests

Question 5

Similarities Between Friendships

Answer 5

o children form friendships based on similar observable characteristics, similar behavioral tendencies, (hobbies, academic achievement, popularity, etc)

Question 6

Behaviors Between Friends

Answer 6

o more altruistic acts, cooperation, positive affect, task orientation
o friends engage in more conflicts than non-friends
• resolutions are teaching methods for greater interaction

Question 7

Gender Related Issues

Answer 7

o boys expect reciprocity, girls want it but do not necessarily expect it to occur
o girls relations are more intimate with less conflict than boys
• may lead to more conflict later on, while terminating friendship
o boys more interested in academic performance, ability, popularity, etc of friends

Question 8

Children without Friends

Answer 8

o 15-20% of children lack the proper social skills/behavior for peer interaction
• associated with more internalized difficulties and peer victimization
o lacking a friend by 5th grade decreases one’s self-worth
• having just one friend alleviates the negative effects

Question 9

Friendship and Adjustment

Answer 9

o better psychological healthy and ability to react healthy in stressful times
• however, can cause overthinking of situations → anxiety, depression

Question 10

Friendship and Shy/Withdrawn Children

Answer 10

o “misery loves friendships” → become friends with similar peers – no disruptions

Question 11

Friendship and Externalizing Children

Answer 11

o aggressive children form friendships with other aggressive children, but will typically encounter more aggression within these relationships

Question 12

The Peer Group as a Social Context

Answer 12

o in middle childhood shift from group of peers to peer group identity
• changes in identity, social-cognitive ability
o peer group is a social context linked by group norms and values and collective guidance

Question 13

Peer Group Functions

Answer 13

o according to Fine, group functioning teaches cooperative, goal driven skills, social structure, leadership, self-control, redirection of aggression
• strong peer networks→decrease in drop outs, pregnancy, delinquency

Question 14

Cliques and Crowds

Answer 14

o cliques label the crowds
o crowd membership is important: informs individuals of expected rules to abide by, encourages identity acceptance or alteration, influences cognitive views

Question 15

Methodological Issues in the Study of Peer Groups

Answer 15

o Social Network Analysis (SNA) – based on friendship nominations
• who they spend time with? detects groups, liaisons, dyads, isolates
o Social Cognitive Maps (SCM) – assess peer groups directly
• forms interconnected circles of people

Question 16

Examining the Contextual Effect of the Peer Group

Answer 16

o peer groups encourage link between academic and social functioning
o academically weak children have social problems

Question 17

Assessing the Quality of Children’s Peer Relationships

Answer 17

o perceived popularity – those that think they are popular, and may be highly visible within a group setting, but are not liked greatly by many
o adults and children have a somewhat fair understanding of quality relationships of children, though both are biased

Question 18

Assessments of Peer Acceptance

Answer 18

o using sociometric popular children, have discovered 5 categories of acceptance
• popular, controversial, rejected. neglected, and average
• the more extreme categories tend to be consistent over time
o can also have children rate each of their peers
o is this ethical though?

Question 19

Behavioral Correlates of Peer Acceptance

Answer 19

Sociometerically popular
• prosocial, positive relationships, assertive, leaders, non-arrogant
Perceived popular
• human, attractive styles, wealthy, athletic
Controversial
• combo of positive and negatively viewed social behaviors
Neglected
• less interaction, aggression, sociability, withdrawn, and shy
Rejected
• commonly due to instrumental/relational aggression, Bullying
• relational is a way to assert popularity

Question 20

Rubin and Rose’s social information processing model

Answer 20

When encountering a problem, children select a goal, examine the environment, asses strategies, implement one, and evaluate outcome

Question 21

Crick and Doge’s social cognitive model

Answer 21

Encode social cues, interpret them, clarify goal, generate potential response, evaluate their worth, implement

Question 22

Arsenio’s social cognitive model

Answer 22

Integrated emotional experiences
o children must have strategies in order to problem solve
• exact strategies repertoire reflects child’s social personality

Question 23

Cognitions and Feelings about the Self and Peer Acceptance

Answer 23

o perceived social competence→ trust in own peer acceptance and impersonal skills
• disconnect between reality and belief → leads to social problems

Question 24

Outcomes of Peer Relationship Difficulties

Answer 24

o peer rejection → range of externalizing problems (i.e. antisocial behaviors) and internalizing problems (i.e. low self-esteem)

Question 25

Temperament and Peer Relationships

Answer 25

o temperament = biological basis for affect arousal, expression, and regulation
o 3 groups of temperamental traits associated with social functioning:
Resistance to control (manageability)
• lack of attention, agreeableness, but craving reward
Negative affect (reactivity)
• easily angered, frustrated, and provoked
Shyness/inhibition
• wary of social and novel situations

Question 26

Parenting and Peer Relationships

Answer 26

o parent-child relationships provide a safety-net for freedom, aids in development of social expectancies and interactions
o influenced by attachment theory – the exact type influences the infant’s internal working models and how it behaves socially
• type A – insecure avoidant: hostile and aggressive
• type B – secure: willing to explore and engage
• type C – insecure-ambivalent: inhibited, whiny, easily frustrated
• type D – disorganized: aggressive

Question 27

Parenting Behaviors and Peer Relationships

Answer 27

o parents can influence the development of quality social behaviors by
• by providing opportunities for peer interactions, monitoring peer encounters, coaching children on interpersonal skills, disciplining unacceptable behaviors → leads to more popular children
o authoritarian parenting styles work best

Question 28

Culture and Peer Relationships

Answer 28

Not much research on this topic but some things are known
o autonomy + assertiveness are more acceptable in Western Cultures
o conformity and interdependence is accepted in Latino cultures
o aggressive children are often rejected in China, while shy kids are considered better adjusted.

Question 29

Ethnic Context of Peer Victimization (Graham article)

Answer 29

• considering the context most likely encourages this type of behavior, examined what would happen if diversity of a setting increased
o if everyone was different, believed there would be less of a reason to victimize
• as diversity increased, less victimization, and feelings of loneliness, with increased feelings of school safety and self-worth → ethnic diversity is a protective factor

Question 30

Ethnicity and the Consequences of Peer Harassment (Graham article)

Answer 30

How does an ethnic context influence the consequences of peer victimization?
o who felt the worst?
• social misfits – negative outcomes of an individual whose stemming from deviations from the group norms
• if a victim is a member of the majority, the effects are reported as being worse
o those who are the majority and victims, tend to experience most self-blame
Conclusion
• ethnicity is a context variable for victimization

Question 31

Understanding Popularity in the Peer System – A. Cillessen & A. Rose

Answer 31

Sociometrically popular – well-like by others, displaying high levels of prosocial behavior, and low levels of aggression
• sociometeric popular children tend to adjust well to future settings
o strong friendships, well adjusted on emotional level

Perceived popular – aggressive and prosocial, with others wishing to be like them
o expects immediate rewards, achieve goals via aggressive means
o authors expect 1 of 2 paths: either continued popularity, or loss of it
o aggression is both overt (generalized) and relational (targeting)
o it is used to achieve or maintain perceived popularity - dominance
• manipulate others for benefit of self
• may encourage antisocial behavior of peers

Question 32

Robert Selman’s Model of Growing Friendship

Answer 32

1. immaturity/egocentric
2. development of prosocial competence
3. maturity and societal perspective
4. social skills, reinforced by
   a. friendship understanding
   b. friendship skills
   c. friendship valuing