Paychology Paper 1 - Psychopathology Flashcards
What is Statistical infrequency?
Occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic.
How does the Statistical graph look like?
-Normal distribution graph
-Highest point is the average which is considered to be normal
-Lowest points on the graph which is considered to be abnormal
-Highest point is in the middle
-Numerical data
What is Deviation from social norms?
Concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society.
How can deviation from social norms differ?
Factors like:
-Generation
-Culture
What is a strength of Statistical infrequency?
Real world application:
-Used in a clinical practice
-Used part of formal diagnosis
-Way to access severity of individuals symptoms
-Example is BDI score of above 30
-Interpreted as indicating severe depression
-Useful in diagnostic and assessment processes
What is a weakness of Statistical infrequency?
Unusual characteristic can be Positive:
-Having a high IQ
-Not considered being abnormal
-Someone with a low score on BDI isnt abnormal
-Not sufficient as sole basis for defining abnormality
What is a strength of Deviation from social norms?
Real world application:
-Used in clinical practice
-Doctors can easily use this definition to diagnose
-Easy to tell when a person is acting ‘abnormal’
-Useful and has value in psychiatry
What is a weakness of Deviation from social norms?
Cultural relativism:
-Differences between variability between cultures
-One culture group may label someone as abnormal from thei standards
-Some african tribes consider hearing voices as normal
-Messages from their ancestors
-Difficult to judge across different cultures
What is failure to function adequately?
Occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day-to-day living.
What does failure to function adequately look like?
-Cannot maintain basic hygiene
-Cannot do work
-Cannot get basic nutrition
-Cannot maintain relationships with people around them
When is someone failing to function adequately?
David Rosenham and Martin seligman proposed additional signs like:
-No longer confroms to standard interpersonal rules like eye contact or respecting ones space
-Experiencing severe personal distress
-Behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous to others or themselves
What is deviation from ideal mental health?
Occurs when someone does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health.
What does ideal mental health look like?
Marie Jahoda’s criteria includes:
-no symptoms or distress
-one is rational and percieve ourselves accurately
-we self actualise
-can cope with stress
-have a realistic view of world
-have good self esteem
-are independent
-can successfully love, work and enjoy leisure
What is a strength of failure to function adequately?
Represents a threshold for help:
-25% of UK will experience a mental health disorder
-However man press on severe symptoms
-Goes to the point where you cannot function
-Treatment and services can be targeted to those who need it most
What is one limitation of failure to function adequately?
Discrimination and social control
-Easy to label non-standard lifestyle choices as abnormal
-For example not having a job is considered abnormal
-People with alternative lifestyles live ‘off grid’
-Making unusual choices are risked of being labelled abnormal
-Freedom can be restricted
What is a strength of deviation from ideal mental health?
Its Comprehensive:
-Included a range of critieria
-Covers most reasons why we seek help
-Can be discussed meaningfully
-Provides a checklist where we can assess ourselves
-Easy to identify
-Easy to be diagnosed
Whats a weakness of deviation from ideal mental health?
Too difficult to achieve:
-Standards are too high
-Hard to meet every goal
-Labels a person abnormal if they have a low point in their life
-Could be dealling with a tragedy
What is another weakness of deviation from ideal mental heath?
Follows individualistic culture:
-Jahodas criteria is located in context of US and Europe
-Concept of self actualisation be dismissed as self-indulgent
-What defines success is different in different cultures
-Difficult to apply the concept to multiple cultures
What is a Phobia?
An irrational fear of an object or situation.
What types of phobias are there?
-Specific phobia: phobia of an object, animal, or situation
-Social phobia: phobia of a social situation
-Agoraphobia: phobia of being outside or in a public place
What are the behavioual categories of phobias?
-Panic: includes crying, screaming or running away
-Avoidance: prevent coming into contact with the phobic stimulus
-Endurance: remaining in presence of phobic stimulus
What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?
-Anxiety: unpleasant state of high arousal
-Fear: immediate and unpleasant response to a phobic stimulus
-Emotional response is unreasonable: anxiety and fear is much greater than ‘normal’ to any threat posed
What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?
-Selective attention to the phobic stimulus: keeping attention on phobic stimulus
-Irrational beliefs: unfounded thoughts in relation to phobic stimuli
-Cognitive distortions: perception of person with phobia may be inaccurate and unrealistic
What is depression?
A mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels.
What types of depressions are there?
-Major depressive disorder: severe but short term
-Persistent depressive disorder: long term or reoccuring
-Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder: childhood temper tantrums
-Premenstral dysphoric disorder: disruption to mood prior to and/or during mentrusation
What are the behavioural characteristics of depression?
-Activity levels: reduced levels of energy
-Disruption to sleep and eating patterns: hypersomnia/insomnia, weight loss/gain
-Aggression and self harm: physical or verbal aggression
What are the emotional characteristics of depression?
-Lowered mood: feeling sad
-Anger: could be directed to themselves or others
-Lowered self esteem: sense of self loathing
What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?
-Poor concentration: hard to make decisions and unable to focus
-Attending to and dwelling on the negative: ignoring positives, bias towards recalling unhappy events
-Absolutist thinking: ‘black and white thinking’, seeing the situation worse than it actually is
What is OCD (Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder)
A condition characterised by obsessions and/or compulsive behaviour. Obsessions are cognitive whereas compulsions are behavioural.
What types of OCDs are there?
-Trichotillomania: compulsive hair pulling
-Hoarding disorder: compulsive gathering of possesions and the inability to part with anything
-Excoriation disorder: compulsive skin picking
What are the behavioural characteristics of OCD?
-Compulsions are repetitive: repeating a behaviour
-Compulsions reduce anxiety: helps ease the individual by doing an action
-Avoidance: reduce anxiety by keeping away from situations that cause triggers
What are the emotional characteristics of OCD?
-Anxiety and distress: unpleasant emotional experience because of the anxiety
-Accompanying depression: paired with depression sometimes
-Guilt and disgust: irrational guilt and disgust on stimulus or oneself
What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD:
-Obsessive thoughts: thoughts reoccurring
-Cognitive coping strategies: doing something to reduce anxiety, e.g. praying
-Insight into excessive anxiety: individuals with OCD are aware of their condition
What is the two process model?
An explanation for the onset and persistence of disorders that create anxiety such as pobias. The two processes are classical conditioning for aquiring and operant conditioning for maintaining.
What is classical conditioning?
Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together, an unconditioned stimulus and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone.
What is operant conditioning.
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequence. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment.
How do you acquire a phobia by classical conditioning?
-John Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) created a phobia in a 9 month old baby called ‘Little Albert’
-No unusual anxiety at start
-Rat presented with a loud bang
-Noise is unconditioned stimulus creating an unconditioned response of fear
-Rat is associated with loud noise
-Albert displays fear of rat now producing a conditioned response
-Conditioning generalised to similar objects
How do you maintain a phobia with operant conditioning?
-Mowrer explained how phobias are maintained with operant conditioning
-Takes place ehen behaviour is reinforced or punished
-Reinforcement increases frequency of behaviour
-Negative reinforcement causes the individual to avoid an unpleasant situation
-Results in a desirable consequence, meaning behaviour is repeated
-Avoiding a phobic stimulus means you successfully escape the fear
-Reduction in fear reinforces avoidance behaviour so phobia is maintained
What is a strength of using the behaviourist approach to explain phobias?
Real world application:
-Exposure therapies such as systematic desensitisation and flooding
-Two process approach explains avoidance
-Exposure benefits from getting over phobia as individuals avoid phobia
-Once avoidance behaviour is presented it ceases to be reinforced
-When avoidance is prevented the phobia is cured
-Shows value as it identifies a means of treating phobias
Whats a limitation of using the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias?
Cognitive aspects of phobias:
-Doesnt account for cognitive aspects
-Explains behaviour
-Phobias are not just simply avoidance responses as they have a significant cognitive component
-People hold irrational beliefs about phobic stimulus
-Doesnt offer an adequate explanation for phobia cognitions
-Doesnt completely explain symptoms of phobias
-Reductionist
What is another strength of using the behaviourist approach to explain phobias?
Phobias and traumatictic experiences:
-Evidence of link between bad experiences and phobias
-Case study of Little Albert
-More systematic evidence comes from a study by Ad De Jongh et al.
-73% of people with a fear of dental treatment had a traumtic experience
-Control group of people with low dental anxiety where only 21% had trauma
-Confirms association between stimulus and unconditioned response lead to phobia
Whats another limitation of using the behaviourist approach to explain phobias?
Ignore biological factors:
-Not all phobias appear with a bad experience
-Some are inherited from ancestors
-Snake phobias occur in populations
-Not many have encountered a snake
-Association between phobias and trauma isnt as strong
-Reductionist
What is Systematic desensitisation?
A behavioural therapy designed to reduce an unwanted response, such as anxiety. SD involves drawing up a hierarchy of anxiety provoking situations related to ampersons phobic stimulus, teaching the person to relax and then exposing them to phobic situations. The person works their way through the hierarchy whilst maintaining relaxation with taught relaxation techniques. A new response (counterconditioning) to the stimulus is learned.
What is Flooding?
A behavioural therapy in which a person with a phobia is exposed to an extreme form of a phobic stimulus in irder to reduce anxiety triggered by that stimulus. This takes place across a small number of long therapy sessions. A learned response is extinguished when the conditioned stimulus is encountered without the UCS.
What is a strength of using SD to treat phobias?
Evidence of effectiveness:
-Lisa Gilroy et al. followed up 42 people who had SD for spider phobia in 45 minute sessions
-Both 3 months and 33 months, SD group less fearful than control group
-Theresa Wechsler et al concluded SD is effective for all types of phobias
-Likely to be helpful
Whats is a weakness of using SD to treat phobias?
Not Cost-effective:
-Time comsuming
-Takes up a lot of money
-Happens over a course of multiple sessions
-More likely to have a higher drop out rate (attrition rates)
-Individuals may not want to commit
What is strength of using Flooding to treat phobias?
Cost effective:
-Clinically effective as NHS doesnt have to spend much and it works
-Not many sessions needed
-Not very expensive
-Achieves same result as SD
-More people can be treated at same cost with flooding than other therapies
What is a weakness of using Flooding to treat phobias?
Traumatic:
-Unpleasant experience
-Provokes tremendous anxiety
-Sarah Schumacher et al. found flooding is rated more significantly more stressful than SD
-Raises ethical issues for psychologists for causing stress
-Attrition rates are higher than for SD
-Therapists may avoid using this treatment
What is the negative triad?
Beck prospered that there are three kinds of negative thinking that contribute to becoming depressed: negatives views of the world, the future and the self. Such negative views lead a person to interpret their experiences in a negative way and so make them more vulnerableto depresson.
What is the ABC model?
Ellis proposed that depression occurs when an activiating event (A) trigger an irrational belief (B) which in turn produces a emotional or behavioural consequence (C). Conditions like anxiety and depression result from irrational thoughts.
What did Beck suggest about how people are vulnerable to depresson?
Faulty information processing:
-Depressed people attend to negative aspects of a situation and ignore positives
-Tending towards ‘black and white thinking’
Negative self schema:
-Schema is a pckage of idea and information developed through experience
-Act as mental framework for interpretation of sesnsory information
-Self schema is the package pf information people have of themselves
-Negative self schema means you interpret information about yourself negatively
Negative triad:
-Negative view of the world
-Negative view of the future
-Negative view of the self
What is a strength of using Beck’s cognitive model of depression to explain why individuals develop depression?
Research support:
-Cognitive vulnerability refers to ways of thinking that may predispose a person to becoming depressed
-Clark and Beck concluded that these vulnerabilities preceded depression
-Joseph Cohen et al. tracked the development of 473 adolescents, regularing measuring cognitive vulnerability
-Found that cognitive vulnerability predicted later depression
-Shows association between cognitive vulnerability and depression
What is another strength of using Beck’s cognitive model of depression to explain why individuals develop depression?
Real world application:
-Screening and treatment
-Cohen et al concluded that assessing cognitive vulnerability allows psychologists to screen young people
-Identifys most at risk of developing depression innthe future ans monitoring them
-Cognitive behavioural therapy
-Work by altering the kind of cognitions that make people vulnerable to depression
-Makes people more resilient to negative life events
-Understanding cognitive vulnerability is useful in more than one aspect of clinical practice
What is a strength of using Ellis ABC model to explain why individuals develop depression?
Real world application:
-Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT)
-Vigously arguing with a depressed person so therapist can alter irrational beliefs
-Can change both negative beliefs and relieve symptoms of depression
-Has real world value
What is a limitation of using Ellis ABC model to explain why individuals develop depression?
Reactive and endogenous depression:
-Only explains reactive depression not endogenous depression
-We respond to negative life events seems to partly result beliefs
-However many cases are not traceable to life events
-Less useful for explaining endogenous depression
-Only explains some cases of depression
-Partial explanation
-Reductionist
What is Cognitive behaviour therapy?
-Treats mental disorders based on both cognitive and behaviour techniques
-From the cognitive viewpoint the therapy aims to deal with thinking such as challenging negative thoughts
-The therapy also includes behavioural techniques such behavioural activation
-Its helps clients test the reality of their negative beliefs so therefore might be set homework.
What is REBT?
-Extends from ABC model to ABCDE model
-D stands for dispute and E stands for effect
-Identitys and disputes irrational thoughts
-Involves a vigorous arguement
-Intended effect is to challenge irrational belief
-Breaks link between negative life events and depression
What is Behavioural activation?
-Works with depressed individuals to gradually decrease their avoidance and isolation
-Increases their engagement in activities that improve moods
-Therapist aims to reinforce such activities like exercising and going out
What is a strength of using CBT to treating depression?
Evidence for effectiveness:
-John March et al. compared CBT to antidepressants drugs when treating 327 depressed adolescents
-After 36 weeks, 81% of CBT group of antidepressants group and 86% of CBT plus antidepressants group significantly improved
-CBT was even mkre effective alongside antidepressants drugs
-Fairly belief therapy requiring 6 to 12 session meaning its cost effective
-Widely seen as first choice of treatment
What is a weakness of using CBT to treating depression?
Suitability for diverse clients:
-Lack of effectiveness for severe cases and clients with learning disabilities
-Some clients cant motivate themselves to engage with the cognitive work of CBT
-May not pay attention
-Complex rational thinking involved makes it unsuitable for treating depression with learning disabilities
-Peter Sturney suggests any form of psychotherapy is not suitable for people with learning disabilities
-May only be appropriate for a specific range of people
What is an another weakness of using CBT to treating depression?
Relapse rates:
-Quite effective at tackling symptoms but benefits dont last long
-Recent studies show long term outcomes are not as good as assumed
-Shehzad Ali et al. assessed depression in 439 clients every month for a year following a course of CBT
-42% clients relapsed into depression within 6 months
-53% relapsed within a year
-May need to be repeated periodically
What is the genetic explanation?
-Genes make up chromosomes and consist of DNA
-Codes the physical features of an organism and psychological features
-Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring (inherited)
-Genes are involved in individuals vulnerability to OCD
-Lewis observed that his OCD patients, 37% had parents with OCD and 21% had siblings with OCD
-Suggets OCD runs in families due to sharing DNA
-Diathesis stress model suggests certain genes leave some people more likely to develop a mental disorder
-Some environmental stress is necessary to trigger the condition
What is the neural explanation?
The view that physical and psychological characteristics are determined by the behaviour of the nervous system, in particular the brain as well as the individuals neurons.
What are candidate genes according to OCD?
-Identified genes which create vulnerability for OCD
-Some of these gens are involved in regulating the development of serotonin system
-Gene 5HT1-D is implicated in transport of serotonin across synapses
What is polygenic?
-Polygenic is when a combination of genetic variations that together significantly increase vulnerability
-OCD is polygenic
-Steven Taylor analysed findings of previous studies and found that up to 230 different genes may be involved in OCD
-Genes associated to OCD include those associated with dopamine and serotonin
-Both neurotransmitters believed to have a role in regulating mood
What does aetiologically heterogeneous mean?
One group of genes may cause OCD in one person but a different group of genes may cause the disorder in another.
What is the role of serotonin?
-Neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying information from one neuron to another
-If a person has low levels of serotonin then normal transmission of mood relevant information does take place
-May experience low moods
What does the neural explanation explain about decision making systems?
-May be associated with abnormal functioning of lateral of the frontal lobes in brain
-Frontal lobe are responsible for logical thinking and making decisions
What is a strength of using the genetic explanation to explain OCD?
Research support:
-Twin studies
-Gerald Nestadt et al. reviewed twin studies and found 68% of identical twins shared OCD
-31% of non identical twins shared OCD
-Family studies
-Family member diagnosed with OCD is around 4 times more likely to develop OCD
-Suggest there must be a genetic influence on the development of OCD
What is a weakness of using the genetic explanation to explain OCD?
Environmental risk factors:
-Strong evidence for idea that genetic variation can make a person more or less vulnerable to OCD
-However OCD doesnt appear entirely genetically
-Environmental risk factors can also trigger or increase risk
-Kiara Cromer et al. found over half OCD clients in their sample has experienced trauma
-OCD was also more severe in those with one or more traumas
-Provides partial explanation
-Reductionist
What is a strength of using the neural explanation to explain OCD?
Research support:
-Antidepressants that work purely on serotonin are effective in reducing OCD symptoms
-Suggests serotonin may be involved in OCD
-OCD symptoms form part of conditions that are known to be biological in origin such as Parkinsons disease
-If biological disorder produces OCD symptoms then you can assume biological processes underlie OCD
-Suggests biological factors may be responsible for OCD
What is a weakness of using the neural explanation to explain OCD?
No unique neural system:
-Serotonin OCD link may not be unique to OCD
-Many individuals also experience clinical depression
-Having two disorders together is called co morbidity
-Depression probably involves disruption to the action of serotonin
-Leave logical problem when it comes to serotonin as a possible base for OCD
-Serotonin may not be relevant to OCD symptoms
What is Drug therapy?
Treatment involving drugs. Chemicals that have a particular effect on the functioning of the brain or some other body system. In the case of psychological disorders such drugs usually affect neurotransmitter levels.
What are SSRIs?
-An antidepressant called Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor
-Serotonin is released by the presynaptic neurons and they travel across a synapse
-The neurotransmitter chemically conveys a signal to the postsynaptic neuron
-Its reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron where it is broken down and reused
-SSRIs effectively increase levels of serotonin in the synapse and stimulate postsynaptic neuron
-It compensates for whatever is wrong either the serotonin system
-Dosage may vary
-Takes 3 to 4 months of daily use for SSRIs to have much impact on symptoms
What aee the Alternatives to SSRIs?
-Tricyclics: acts on various systems including serotonin system where it has same effect as SSRIs.
-SNRIs: different class kf antidepressant drugs and are in 2nd line of defence for people who dont respond to SSRIs, they increase serotonin and another different neurotransmitter (noradrenaline)
What is a strength using drug treatment to treat OCD?
Evidence of effectiveness:
-Clear evidence to show SSRIs reduce symptoms severity and improve quality of life
-Mustafa Soomro et al. reviewed 17 studies that compared SSRIs to placebo conditions
-All 17 studies showed significantly better outcomes for SSRIs than placebo conditions
-Typically symptoms reduce around 70% of people taking SSRIs
-Remaining 30% can be helped by alternative drugs or combination of drugs and psychological therapies
-Drugs appear to be helpful for most people with OCD
What is an another strength using drug treatment to treat OCD?
Cost-effective and non-disruptive:
-Cheaper compared to psychological treatments
-Thousands of tablets and liquid doses can be manufactured in the time it takes to conduct one session
-Good value for public health systems like NHS
-Good use of limited funds
-Non disruptive to peoples lives
-Simply take drugs until your symptoms decline
-Different to spending time attending therapy sessions
-Popular with many people with OCD and their doctors
What is a weakness using drug treatment to treat OCD?
Serious side effects:
-Helps majority but small minority get no benefit
-Side effects like indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex drive
-Theyre temporary but can be distressing for people
-Can be long lasting for minority
-Taking tricyclic, side effects are more common ans more serious
-1 in 10 experience erection problems ans weight gain
-1 in 100 become aggressive and experience heart related problems
-Some people have a reduced quality of life as a result of taking drugs
-May stop taking them altogether, meaning drugs cease to be effective
