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pathophysiology > Pathophysiology Exam 1 > Flashcards

Pathophysiology Exam 1 Flashcards

General information from Powerpoints. Refer to disease templates for disease questions for disease questions.

1
Q

Anatomic Organization

A

cells - basic building blocks
tissues
organs
organ systems

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2
Q

Cellular components

A

Plasma membrane
Organelles
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Cytoskeleton

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3
Q

Plasma Membrane

A

semi-permeable with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails

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4
Q

Organelles

A

tiny structures in cell

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5
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

packages and secretes substance produced by ER out of cell

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6
Q

Lysosomes

A

digest debris in cell

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7
Q

Peroxisomes

A

has enzymes that neutralize free radicals

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8
Q

Mitochondria

A

Produces ATP

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9
Q

Cytoplasm

A

everything in cell except nucleus

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10
Q

nucleus

A

the brain

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11
Q

cytoskeleton

A

framework of proteins that contribute to the shape of the cell

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12
Q

Name 6 cellular functions

A
  1. Transportation
  2. Ingestion
  3. Secretion
  4. Respiration
  5. Communication
  6. Reproduction
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13
Q

Name and explain the 3 categories of Transport Mechanisms

A
  1. Passive transport
    • No energy
    • From [high] to [low]
      - Diffusion: Particle movement
      - Osmosis: water movement
  2. Facilitated transport
    * Still Passive= no energy
    * Needs transport protein
  3. Active transport
    * Requires Energy
    * Movement AGAINST the gradient
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14
Q

Define Ingestion and name 3 different types

A

Ingesting substances into the cytoplasm

  • Endocytosis
    Used to transport large substances into cells
    • Pinocytosis
      *Contents of small liquid-
      containing vesicles
    • Phagocytosis
      *Large particles, such as
      cells, bacteria, and cell
      components
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15
Q

Secretion

A

*Cellular products packaged into vesicles

*Transport out of the cell by exocytosis

*golgi works with ER to package and secrete

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16
Q

Define Respiration and name 2 types

A

(basically how the cell makes energy/ ATP)
Series of metabolic processes that transforms fuel molecules into energy and waste products

*Aerobic
Produces ATP using oxygen

*Anaerobic
Produces ATP without using oxygen

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17
Q

Communication

A

*Signals between cells controlling cellular function and behavior

*Messages communicated by receptor–ligand binding

*Feedback mechanisms prevent cellular damage

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18
Q

Reproduction

A

Cellular division under genetic control

*Mitosis - identical 
  replication

 *Meiosis - makes 
  something new

Cellular differentiation directs the development of specific cell types

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19
Q

Cellular Response to Stress

A

*preventcell/tissue harm

  • Cells undergo adaptation torespond to stressors

*Cell injury/death whenadaptation fails

*Once stressor is removed,adaptation stops

*Cells adapt to increased work demands by changing in:
- Size
- Number
- Form

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20
Q

Cerebral Atrophy

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

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21
Q

Cardiac hypertrophy

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

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22
Q

Acromegaly

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

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23
Q

Cervical Metaplasia and Dysplasia

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

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24
Q

Atrophy

A

decrease in cell size

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25
Q

Hypertrophy

A

increase in cellsize

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26
Q

Hyperplasia

A

increase in numberof cells

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27
Q

Metaplasia

A

replacementof adult cells

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28
Q

Dysplasia

A

deranged cellgrowth

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29
Q

Mechanisms of death and causes of injury

A

Apoptosis - response to trigger! (cell suicide)

Necrosis - b/c of injury, irreversible, affects organelles/tissues

  • Causes of injury
    Physical
    Mechanical
    Thermal
    Chemical
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30
Q

Migraine

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

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31
Q

Which level of neuron carries sensory impulses to the thalamus?

A

Second-Order Neuron

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32
Q

What are the two Pain Pathways?

A

Discriminative & Anterolateral Pathways

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33
Q

Fibromyalgia

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

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34
Q

Meniere Disease

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

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35
Q

Otitis Media

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

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36
Q

Alterations in Protective Eye Structures:

Glaucoma

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

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37
Q

Alterations in Protective Eye Structures:

Macular Degeneration

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

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38
Q

The senses of hearing and balance are maximized by …

A

the function of the external ear and internal ear structures.

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39
Q

Alterations in vision can be induced by multiple causes, including …

A

damage to eye structures, motor dysfunction, and impaired neural conduction

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40
Q

Errors of Refraction

*name 9

A

Refraction-bending of light

Myopia-Nearsightedness

Hyperopia-Farsightedness

Astigmatism-irregular curvature of the cornea

Presbyopia-farsightedness-inability of the ciliary muscles & lens to accommodate for near vision

Strabismus-cross eye

Amblyopia-lazy eye

Diplopia-double vision

Nystagmus-involuntary eye
movement (brainstem or cerebellar lesions, Meniere disease, Multiple Sclerosis, Drug or Alcohol Toxicity

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41
Q

Refraction

A

bending of light

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42
Q

Diplopia

A

double vision

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43
Q

Amblyopia

A

lazy eye

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44
Q

Strabismus

A

cross eye

45
Q

Nystagmus

A

involuntary eye movement (brainstem or cerebellar lesions, Meniere disease, Multiple Sclerosis, Drug or Alcohol Toxicity

46
Q

Astigmatism

A

irregular curvature of the cornea

46
Q

Myopia

A

Nearsightedness

47
Q

True or False? The structures of the eye are protected by both physical and chemical barriers.

A

True

48
Q

Extraocular muscles are responsible for …

A

the rotation, horizontal, and vertical movement of the eyes.

49
Q

Evaluation of Pain

*How is it achieved?

A

*Careful evaluation of pain is achieved upon physical exam

*Pain is subjective

*Using the pneumonic “COLDSPA”

*Pain Measurement Scale

Review pain measurement scale

50
Q

Define Referred Pain and give an example

A

*Perceived at a site different from its point of origin

*Results from the network of sensory nerves that supply many different tissues

Example: during a myocardial infraction pain may be felt in arm rather than the heart.

51
Q

Phantom Limb Pain

Definition
Treatment
Sensation

A

*pain from limb that is no longer there.

*Tingling, squeezing, heaviness, burning, cramping, or shooting pain

*Multiple theories including neuromatrix

*Treatment includes TENS, hypnosis, relaxation training, sympathetic blocks

52
Q

Treatment of Pain

A
  1. Pain relief (ANALGESIA) is the goal for pain treatment
  2. Non-pharmacologic interventions first before OTC & narcotics (ex. pacifiers, swaddling, rocking, music therapy, other distractors.
  3. Controlling pain to allow individuals to perform ADL’s
  4. Pediatric clients have a complex behavioral, physiologic and biochemical response and requires special considerations with pain management.
53
Q

Non-Narcotic Analgesics
(Pain relief)

A

Aspirin and other NSAIDS
* reduce inflammation

Acetaminophen
* not anti-inflammatory
* Be mindful of administration in the elderly, liver and kidney disease

54
Q

Types of Pain

A

Acute - usually diagnosed and treated. Comes quickly and resolves quickly (1-3 months)

Chronic - often associated with a disease. Lasts several months or longer (3-6+ months)

55
Q

Classification of Pain

A

Location
- cutaneous, deep, referred, visceral

Quality (feeling)
- sharp, burning, throbbing

Duration
- acute vs. chronic

56
Q

Pain can be objective or subjective. True or False

A

True

57
Q

Headaches

A

*Caused by several conditions’ primary vs secondary

Can Indicate serious disorders such as meningitis, brain tumor, cerebral aneurysm, post-trauma, traumatic brain injury

*Diagnosis and classification is determined by a comprehensive H & P

(refer to powerpoint picture and textbook as well)

58
Q

Characterization of Pain

A

Nociceptive - may cause tissue damage and include pressure, sharp objects, electric current or heat/cold applied to the skin. NOCICEPTIVE pathways are composed of first, second, third order neurons. ​

Neuropathic - direct injury or dysfunction of sensory axons of peripheral or central nerves

59
Q

Nociceptors

A

Focused on Pain & Itch

Refer to powerpoint image

60
Q

Dorsal Root Ganglia-Fiber Types

A
  1. Type A fibers are myelinated, the largest size fiber, and have the fastest rate of conduction. (Fast pain)
  2. Type B fibers are myelinated and transmit from cutaneous and subcutaneous receptors.
  3. Type C fibers are unmyelinated and have the smallest diameter and slowest rate of conduction. (slow pain)
61
Q

NEUROMETER

A

tests involvement of specific nerve fibers, allowing for a more comprehensive assessment of sensory function.

62
Q

Pain Pathways

A

Discriminative Pathway: used for the rapid transmission of sensory information such as discriminative touch (used for spatial orientation)

Anterolateral Pathway: Involves both the anterior & lateral spinothalamic pathways that provides transmission of sensory information. (slow conduction)

Use textbook

63
Q

First-Order neurons

A

Carry Receptive endingsto Spinal Cord

*Detect stimuli that threatens the integrity of innervated tissues

*Carries sensory information from the periphery to the Central Nervous System (CNS)

64
Q

Second-Order neurons

A

Carry sensory impulse to brain

*Relays information from the spinal cord and travels to the thalamus

65
Q

Third-Order neurons

A

Carry Sensory Impulse to the Cortex

*Communicates sensory information from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex

*Processes pain information to the brain

66
Q

Somatosensory System
(Central Nervous System )

A

Pain is transmitted by the somatosensory system along with sensations of pain, touch, temperature and body position

67
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

Touch, Sound, Balance

*The external stimuli are usually in the form of touch, pressure, stretching, sound waves, and motion.

68
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

special nerve cells or receptors that sense changes in the chemical composition of the blood.

69
Q

Anterolateral pathway
*Paleospinothalamic tract (slower)

A

*Diffuse, aching, unpleasant sensation

*Seen with chronic and visceral pain

*Associated with the mood-altering (emotions) and attention-narrowing effect of pain

*Can influence hypothalamic functions and > HR >BP

*Travels through small unmyelinated C fibers

*Activates the reticular activating system (controls sleep/wake cycles)

70
Q

Somatosensory information is sequentially transmitted:

A

1st order, 2nd order and 3rd order neurons.

71
Q

Somatosensory information includes…

A

touch, temperature, body position and PAIN.

72
Q

Color vision is determined by

A

the combination of cones

*absence of cones -> color blindness

73
Q

Visual Structures and Function

A

Eye consist of the cornea, retina, pupil, iris, lens, aqueous humor, vitreous humor, ciliary muscles and photoreceptors

*sight is achieved when light is reflected into the cornea

74
Q

Cochlea

A

responsible for neural impulse that allows hearing

75
Q

Balancing Processes:

Semicircular canals and vestibule (vestibular apparatus)

A

detect head position and acceleration, maintaining body position and stable visual fields

76
Q

Barotrauma

A

Changes in atmospheric pressure, or injury resulting from the inability of the ear to equalize barometric stress.

ex. air travel and sea diving

77
Q

Pain Theories:
Specificity

A

specific receptors (nociceptors) that detect and then transmit info to the brain for interpretation.

78
Q

Pain Theories:
Pattern

A

Group of theories that propose that pain receptors share pathways with other sensory receptors.

79
Q

Pain Theories:
Gate control

A

Peripheral receptors generate impulses along the afferent neurons and enter the spinal cord serving as a gate regulating the transmission of impulses.

80
Q

Pain Theories:
Neuromatrix

A

The brain (thalamus, limbic, spinal) identifies pain and there are multiple dimensions and determinants of pain, including stress, attention, culture, expectation, personality, and genetics

81
Q

Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone (SIADH)

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

82
Q

Diabetes Insipidus (DI)

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

83
Q

Hyperthyroidism
*Graves Disease

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

84
Q

Hypothyroidism

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

85
Q

Cushing syndrome

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

86
Q

Addison disease

  • patho
  • risk factors
  • signs/symptoms,
  • diagnostics
  • treatment
    *nursing actions
A

Refer to concept map!

87
Q

Characteristics of Hormones

A

*CONTROL via the hypothalamic–pituitary axis

*FEEDBACK (positive and negative loops)

*PATTERNS of hormone secretion, metabolism, elimination

*RECEPTOR binding

*ACTION on target organs and glands

88
Q

Mediating Cell-to-Cell Communication:

Paracrine pathway

A

hormones produces in cell, secreted. and act directly on nearby receptive cells

89
Q

Mediating Cell-to-Cell Communication:

Autocrine pathway

A

similar to paracrine, but receptor cells are also secretory cells, so cell can produce and exert effect on itself

90
Q

Mediating Cell-to-Cell Communication:

Endocrine pathway

A

involves hormones traveling through blood to find a receptor site and bind there

91
Q

Mediating Cell-to-Cell Communication:

Synaptic pathway

A

stays in nervous system

92
Q

Mediating Cell-to-Cell Communication:

Neuroendocrine pathway

A

starts in nervous system and ends in blood

93
Q

General Adaptation Syndrome

Name the 3 stages

A
  1. Alarm stage
  2. Resistance stage - if you cannot maintain this stage then it’ll lead to the exhaustion stage
  3. Exhaustion stage - prolonged long-term stress leads to this stage (burnout and fatigue are signs)

Refer to textbook for more information!!

94
Q

Stress Response
*Neurologic response
(in central nervous system)

Name 6!

A

*Autonomic system - heart rate, BP, resp., pupils dilate, sweating

*Cerebral cortex - regulates cognitive activities (focus, planning, attention, and persistence)

*Limbic system - regulates emotions like fear, anxiety, anger, excitement

*Thalamus - intensifies sensory input related to stressor like vision, hearing and smell

*Hypothalamus

*Reticular activating system

95
Q

Stress Response
*Hormonal response

Name 4-7!

A
  • Corticotropin-releasing hormone

*ACTH

*Cortisol

*Catecholamines
- Epinephrine
- Norepinephrine
- Dopamine

Refer to textbook

96
Q

Treating Altered Hormone Function

A

Dependent on cause!

  • Hormone excesses
    • Removal of tumor
    • Removal of part or all of endocrine gland
    • Medications that block effects of
      hormone

*Hormone deficits
- Medications that stimulate release or
replace hormone

97
Q

How would you diagnose altered hormone function?

A

*History and physical
examination

*Laboratory tests
- Serum and urine
hormone levels
- Hormone
suppression and
stimulation tests
- Serum electrolyte,
glucose, and
calcium levels

*Imaging studies

*Genetic testing

98
Q

Hypopituitarism

A

a rare condition in which the pituitary gland doesn’t make one or more hormones or doesn’t make enough hormones

99
Q

Hyperpituitarism

A

an excessive secretion or production of one or more of the hormones produced by the pituitary gland

100
Q

General Manifestations of Hypopituitarism

A
  • Gradual onset
  • Fatigue
  • Weakness
  • Anorexia
  • Sexual dysfunction
  • Growth impairment
  • Dry skin
  • Constipation
  • Cold intolerance
101
Q

General Manifestations of Antidiuretic hormone

*excess and deficit

A

*excess
- fluid retention
- hyponatremia

*deficit
- excessive water loss

102
Q

General Manifestations of thyroid hormone

*excess and deficit

A

*excess
- weight loss
- hypermetabolism
- proptosis

*deficit
- weight gain
- dry skin
- constipation

103
Q

General Manifestations of parathyroid hormone

*excess and deficit

A

*excess
- hypercalcemia
- formation of renal calculi
- excessive osteoclastic activity and bone resorption

*deficit
- hypocalcemia
- muscle spasms
- bone deformities

104
Q

General Manifestations of Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

*excess and deficit

A

*excess
- hypertension
- hypernatremia (high sodium)
- hypokalemia

*deficit
- hypotension
- hyponatremia
- hypokalemia (low potassium)

105
Q

Another term for cortisol

A

glucocorticoids

106
Q

Hearing Evaluation

A

*hearing loss can be quantified using decibels (dB). The frequency or pitch of the sound in hertz (Hz)

  • Minimal hearing loss: 16 to 25 dB
  • Mild hearing loss: 26 to 40 dB
  • Moderate hearing loss: 41 to 55 dB
  • Moderate to severe hearing loss: 56 to 70 dB
  • Severe hearing loss: 71 to 90 dB
  • Profound hearing loss: 91 dB or more
107
Q

Hyperopia

A

Farsightedness

108
Q

Presbyopia

A

farsightedness-inability of the ciliary muscles & lens to accommodate for near vision

pathophysiology (1 decks)

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