Pathology Flashcards
What are the organelles of a cell
Nucleus
ER
Golgi apparatus
Chloroplast
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
How long does it take for an abscess to form
Few days to a week
Define endometriosis
a condition resulting from the appearance of endometrial tissue outside the uterus and causing pelvic pain, especially associated with menstruation.
What are the questions for an MMSE
1) age - must be correct
2) time, without looking at a timepiece, correct to the nearest hour
3) 42, West Street - given as at test of immediate memory and retested at the end
4) month - must be exact
5) year - exact, except in Jan or Feb when last year is OK
6) name of place, or type of place or town (“in hospital” is insufficient (1))
7) date of birth - exact
8) start of WWI, exact - 1914
9) name of the present monarch
10) counting backwards from 20 to 0, can prompt to 18 and patient may self-correct or hesitate
What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism
fatigue.
weight gain.
trouble tolerating cold.
joint and muscle pain.
dry skin or dry, thinning hair.
heavy or irregular menstrual periods or fertility problems.
slowed heart rate.
depression.
How is thyroxine made in the body
In the thyroid gland
T3 and T4. Both are tyrosine based.
T3 is active form and T4 is inactive
T3 is made from T4
Iodide is key in this process
What is FAP
FAP is a rare condition that can run in families. It sometimes used to be called Gardner syndrome.
FAP causes hundreds or thousands of small growths in the the large bowel. These are called polyps or adenomas. They usually start to appear when a person is in their teens.
Gardner’s syndrome
Osteomas, supernumerary teeth and desmoid tumours
What is an oncogene
It is a cancer-causing gene, before it is mutated, it is called a proto-oncogene.
What is the Duke’s staging
A - Confined to the inner wall
B - invades the muscular layer
C - Goes part the muscular layer and affects surrounding lymph nodes
D - Distant mets
What are the contents of pus and why is it yellow
It is composed of degenerating white blood cells (leukocytes), tissue debris, and living or dead microorganisms. It is yellow due to the accumulation of dead neutrophils
What is the lifespan of a neutrophil
5.4 days
What are the characteristics of neutrophils
Actively phagocytotic polymorphonuclear cells that migrate through the capillaries into the area of infection/ inflammation
Where does gallbladder Ca commonly spread
Liver and peritonium
What is pseudomembranous colitis
Pseudomembranous (SOO-doe-mem-bruh-nus) colitis is inflammation of the colon associated with an overgrowth of the bacterium Clostridioides difficile (formerly Clostridium difficile) — often called C. diff. Pseudomembranous colitis is sometimes called antibiotic-associated colitis or C. difficile colitis.
This overgrowth of Clostridioides difficile (C. difficile) is often related to a recent hospital stay or antibiotic treatment. C. difficile infections are more common in people over 65 years old.
What is cancer grading vs stagng
Staging means how big the cancer is and whether it has spread. Grading means how abnormal the cancer cells and tissue look under a microscope.
What are tyrosine kinase receptors and what role do they play in cancers
Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) play an important role in a variety of cellular processes including growth, motility, differentiation, and metabolism. As such, dysregulation of RTK signalling leads to an assortment of human diseases, most notably, cancers
What is ARDS
ARDS is a multistage inflammatory process consisting of several mediators and increasing the capillary permeability and alveolar oedema. Resulting in poor diffusion of gases.
Managed with ventilation, adequate oral intake and caloric intake as able, supportive care in GICU.
How long to stop clexane before surgery
24 hours
Where would you place the diathermy pad
as close to the operative site as possible, clean and dry, well vascularised, and over a large muscle mass. Avoid bony prominences, adipose tissue, scar tissue, skin over implanted metal prostheses, hairy surfaces, and pressure points.
What is a fistula
An abnormal opening or passage between two organs or between an organ and the surface of the body
What are the causes of ECF
Most ECFs occur after bowel surgery. Other causes include infection, perforated peptic ulcer and inflammatory bowel diseases such as Crohn’s disease or ulcerative colitis. An ECF may also develop from an abdominal injury or trauma, such as a stabbing or gunshot.
How do you conservatively manage a fistula
Rehydration
Administration of antibiotics
Correction of anemia
Electrolyte repletion
Drainage of obvious abscess
Nutritional support
Control of fistula drainage
Skin protection
What is dysplasia
Abnormal cells within a tissue that have not crossed the basement membrane
What is the pathophysiology of venous ulcers
Venous hypertension causes a chronic inflammatory response that over time can cause venous ulceration. The inciting inflammatory injury is chronic extravasation of macromolecules and red blood cell degradation products and iron overload
What are the different kinds of necrosis
Coagulative necrosis
With coagulative necrosis, the dead cells remain firm and look normal for days after death. Lack of blood flow or oxygen to any part of your body except your brain can cause coagulative necrosis.
Liquefactive necrosis
With liquefactive necrosis, the dead cells partially or completely dissolve within hours of death. Then they transform into a thick, sticky liquid. The cells sometimes appear creamy yellow because pus is forming. Infections and lack of oxygen to your brain can cause liquefactive necrosis.
Fat necrosis
With fat necrosis, damaged cells release enzymes, causing them to turn to liquid. The liquid cells combine with calcium, creating chalky, white deposits on the cells. Acute pancreatitis is the most common cause of fat necrosis. It can also occur in breast tissue.
Caseous necrosis
With caseous necrosis, the dead cells look white and soft. They’ve been described as looking like cheese — the word caseous means “cheese-like.” Caseous necrosis is uniquely seen in the infectious lung disease tuberculosis.
Fibrinoid necrosis
With fibrinoid necrosis, the dead cells appear pink and lack structure. This is because plasma proteins (fibrins) are leaking out of your blood vessel walls. Fibrinoid necrosis occurs when an autoimmune disease or infection damage your blood vessels.
Gangrenous necrosis
With gangrenous necrosis, your skin appears black and is beginning to rot. Lack of blood flow to your legs can cause gangrenous necrosis. It can sometimes affect your arms and fingers too.
What is adhesive capsulitis
Adhesive capsulitis, also known as frozen shoulder, is an inflammatory condition characterized by shoulder stiffness, pain, and significant loss of passive range of motion
Thick bands of scar tissue called adhesions develop over time, and you have less synovial fluid to keep your shoulder joint lubricated. This makes it more difficult for your shoulder to move and rotate properly.
Correlation with DM
What is MUA and how can it be used to treat adhesive capsulitis
GA and loosening of the shoulder joint. This can help in regaining of function
What is the effect of DM on surgery
Impaired wound healing
Kidney function issues and electrolyte imbalances
CV instability
Increased infections
Prolonged hospital stays
MIs
What is the physiology of a fever
Fever occurs when either endogenous or exogenous pyrogens cause an elevation in the body’s thermoregulatory set-point. The hypothalamus is responsible for the regulation of this set point
What is the difference between cancer staging and grading
While a grade describes the appearance of cancer cells and tissue, a cancer’s stage explains how large the primary tumor is and how far the cancer has spread in the patient’s body.
How to tyrosine kinase inhibitors work in cancer management
They work by blocking tyrosine kinase enzymes. TKI enzymes help manage how cells work, including cell signaling and growth and how often cells divide. Some tyrosine kinase inhibitors are used to treat cancer. TKIs work by blocking enzymes and keeping cancer cells from growing.
Some examples are Imatinib mesylate (Gleevec®) Dasatinib (Sprycel®) Nilotinib (Tasigna®) Bosutinib (Bosulif®)
What does it mean when an ascitic tap shows mucinous cells
Mucinous ascites, which is an increase in fluid that lubricates the peritoneum, can be caused by mucinous cells that spread through the peritoneum’s lining. This is known as pseudomyxoma peritonei (PMP), a syndrome that’s usually caused by a mucinous tumor of the appendix. Less commonly, it can be caused by tumors in the colon, rectum, stomach, pancreas, or urachus
What is the recommended management of FAP
Total colectomy
What are the extraintestinal manifestations of FAP
Desmoid tumours, Supernumary teeth and osteomas
What are the complications of Hep C
Pancreatitis
Liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma
Chronic kidney disease due to chronic inflammation
What is sequestrum vs involcrum
A sequestrum is a segment of dead bone that separates from healthy bone, and an involucrum is a layer of new bone that forms around the sequestrum
What are the common organisms causing osteomyelitis
S.Auereus and MRSA, strep pyogenes
Pseudomonas
What is the anatomy of a lymph node
The typical lymph node is surrounded by a connective tissue capsule and divided into compartments called lymph nodules. The lymph nodules are dense masses of lymphocytes and macrophages and are separated by spaces called lymph sinuses.
What gene mutations are present in the MEN syndromes
MEN1, RET, and CDKN1B
Classify the different types of jaundice
Pre-hepatic
Also known as hemolytic jaundice, this type occurs before the liver processes waste, resulting in higher levels of unconjugated bilirubin. Common causes include malaria, sickle cell anemia, spherocytosis, and thalassemia.
Hepatic
Also known as hepatocellular jaundice, this type occurs in the liver and results in higher levels of both conjugated and unconjugated bilirubin. Hepatitis B is an example of a condition that can cause jaundice.
Post-hepatic
Also known as cholestatic or obstructive jaundice, this type occurs after the liver has processed waste, resulting in higher levels of conjugated bilirubin. Post-hepatic jaundice is considered surgical jaundice, while pre-hepatic and intra-hepatic causes are known as medical jaundice.
What is bile made up of
Water: 97–98% of bile is water
Bile salts: Also called bile acids, these break down large fat globules in food into smaller droplets that are easier for the digestive system to process
Cholesterol: A main component of bile
Bilirubin: A bile pigment that’s orange-yellow in color and is produced when red blood cells are broken down in the liver
Biliverdin: An oxidized form of bilirubin that’s green in color
Phospholipids: Complex fats that contain phosphorus
Body salts: Such as potassium and sodium
Copper and other metals: Attached to proteins
What is meant by enterohepatic circulation
Enterohepatic circulation is the circulation of biliary acids, bilirubin, drugs or other substances from the liver to the bile, followed by entry into the small intestine, absorption by the enterocyte and transport back to the liver
How does bile help in absorption of fat
Through emulsification, bile acids break down large lipid droplets into smaller ones, increasing the surface area for digestive enzymes. Emulsification is possible due to the amphipathic properties of bile salts.[1] The hydrophilic portion of the bile salts surrounds the lipid, forcing the lipid to disperse as the negative charges repel each other. Bile salts also allow the products of lipid digestion to be transported as micelles
What is Felty syndrome
Felty syndrome is a triad of three conditions that occur together:
Rheumatoid arthritis.
Neutropenia.
Splenomegaly.
Define nec fasc
Necrotizing fasciitis (NF) is a rare but potentially fatal infection involving the subcutaneous tissue and fascia. It is commonly known as flesh-eating disease.
What are the indications for surgery on a ECF
Non-healing
A diseased segment of the bowel like in IBD for example
Very high output
Complex and multiple fistulas
What is the most common kind of testicular cancer based on age
Testicular cancer can occur at any age, but is most often found among males age 20 to 44 years. The most common tumor type among males younger than 30 years was non-seminoma germinoma. The most common tumor type among older males was seminoma germinoma
What is the life span of a neutrophil in the blood stream
Less than 24 hours, but depending on where the neutrophil is, could be longer or shorter
Bone marrow: Neutrophils can live for about 10 days in the bone marrow.
Peripheral tissue: Neutrophils can live for about 2–3 days in peripheral tissue.
Circulation: Neutrophils can live for less than 24 hours in circulation. However, some studies have reported a longer lifespan of up to 5.4 days.
What is Jaundice
Jaundice is a condition where your skin, the whites of your eyes and mucous membranes (like the inside of your nose and mouth) turn yellow
What are the benefits of braided sutures
This type of suture offers great knot security, flexibility and is easy to handle. Multifilament sutures can be coated to pass through tissue easily.
Which thyroid cancer is not detectable by radio-iodine
Because medullary thyroid cancer (MTC) cells do not absorb iodine, radioiodine scans are not used for this cancer
Where can ectopic thyroid tissue be found
along the path of thyroid gland descent, but it can rarely be found in the mediastinum, heart, diaphragm, and esophagus.
what is the cause of Dupuytren’s contracture
The exact cause is unknown, but there are several; risk factors such as age, sex, FHx, smoking drinking, diabetes, high cholesterol, thyroid issues
What is the treatment of Suputreyns contractures
Surgery to remove the affected tissue in the hand (fasciectomy)
using a needle to make small cuts in the affected tissue (needle fasciotomy)
surgery to remove the affected issue and skin (dermofasciectomy)
How does herceptin work
Herceptin works by attaching itself to the HER2 receptors on the surface of breast cancer cells and blocking them from receiving growth signals. By blocking the signals, Herceptin can slow or stop the growth of the breast cancer. Herceptin is an example of an immune targeted therapy
What are the defining characteristics of carcinoid tumours
Slow Growing and relasing serotonin causing the syndrome. It is a neuro endocrine tumour
