Patho test 1 Flashcards
Contain their own DNA that codes for enzymes.
Mitochondria
Which type of tissue lines the kidney tubules?
Simple cuboidal tissue
Most common cause of hypoxia
ischemia
Lack of heart contraction during hypoxia is caused by…
rapid decrease in mitochondrial phosphorylation, resulting in low ATP production.
Lack of ATP during hypoxia causes…
an increase in anaerobic metabolism.
Process of anaerobic metabolism.
Na-K+ pump fails, increased Na+ in cell, swelling of cell
The effect that genetics has on aging.
DNA damage due to free radicals of oxygen.
This occurs when an external force or a cut of blood supply damages the cell.
Necrosis
Programmed cell death.
Apoptosis.
Indicative of tissue hypoxia and low oxygen.
Elevated lactic acid.
Process of anaerobic glycolysis.
Mitochondria cannot form ATP, so glucose produces ATP along with pyruvic acid. Pyruvic acid is then converted to lactic acid.
A molecule that can donate a proton or accept an electron pair.
Acid
Aldosterone regulates
sodium balance.
Aldosterone is secreted from
the adrenal cortex.
Production of aldosterone
low BP and renal flow, renin released, converted to angiotensin I, ACE converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II, angiotensin II stimulates secretion of aldosterone.
Role of aldosterone.
promotes sodium and water reabsorption.
Of the 60% of the body that is made up of water, 3L is found where?
Intravascular ECF (blood plasma)
The blood pressure generated in vessels by the contraction of the heart.
hydrostatic pressure.
Genetic error of Down syndrome
Trisomy of 21st chromosome.
If a male inherits an autosomal recessive disorder, he inherited from…
both parents.
The passage of blood cells through the intact walls of the capillaries, typically accompanying inflammation.
diapedesis
a benign tumor that arises in or resembles glandular tissue.
adenoma.
characteristics of malignant tissue
anaplasia, irregular edges, rapid growth rate, moderate vascularity,
Poorly differentiated or undifferentiated tissue
malignant tumor
Cells and nuclei that vary in shape and size
pleomorphic cells in malignant tumors.
The most common route for distant metastasis
bloodstream
cancer cachexia
tumor takes nutrients from the host.
AIDS predisposes people to…
opportunistic infections
AIDS is trasmitted by
anal sex, contaminated blood, mother to baby, shared needles
Affected cells in AIDS are
CD4 cells
slowly augments the initial defenses against infection and provides long-term security against reinfection.
Immunity
Two types of acquired immunity
Active and passive immunity
Two types of lymphocytes involved in immunity
T and B lymphocytes.
a type of serum protein that provides long-term specific protection against particular antigens.
antibodies
Two words to describe antibodies
Specificity and memory.
altered immunologic response to an antigen that results in disease or damage to the host.
hypersensitivity
most rapid and severe hypersensitivity reaction
anaphyalxis
does not involve the host’s immune response at all.
passive immunity
passive immunity is
temporary
three body systems that work together to respond to stress and injury
central nervous system, neuroendocrine, and immune system.
inhibits initial inflammatory effects such as vasodilation and increased capillary permeability
cortisol
cortisol promotes
resolution and repair.
cortisol suppresses
Th1 cells
cortisol stimulates
Th2 cells
function as chemical signals between cells
cytokines
cells of innate immunity
macrophages, dendritic cells, antigen-presenting cells
cells of adaptive immunity
Th1 and Th2 lymphocytes.
essential to the development of an adequate immune response
cytokines
how does the immune system exert effect upon the brain?
through hormones.
these two systems provide the means by which cell and tissue functions are integrated into a solitary, surviving organism.
Nervous and endocrine system.
central nervous system consist of the
brain and spinal cord.
peripheral nervous system consists of
cranial and spinal nerves.
the PNS can be divided into the
somatic and autonomic system.
regulates voluntary motor control of skeletal muscle
somatic nervous system.
regulates involuntary control of organ systems.
autonomic nervous system.
two major types of cells in the nervous system
neurons and neuroglial cells.
the primary information and communication cell of the nervous system
neurons.
Remove debris, increase speed of nerve impulses, and involved with memory
neuroglial cells.
three parts of a neuron.
cell body, dendrites, and axons.
extensions that carry nerve impulse toward the cell body.
dendrites.
projections that carry nerve impulses away from the body.
axons.
Neurotransmitters are formed in
neurons
Neurotransmitters are stored in
synaptic vesicles within the axon knobs.
how neurotransmitters are released.
action potentials cause synaptic vessels to release NTS into synaptic cleft where they bind to receptor sites of postsynaptic neuron.
synapses between neurons permit
impulses.
the cephalic portion of the nervous system becomes
the brain.
the caudal portion of the nervous system becomes the
spinal cord
CN I
olfactory
CN II
optic
CN III
occulomotor
CN IV
Trochlear
CN V
Trigeminal
CN VI
abducens
CN VII
facial
CN VIII
vestibulocochlear
CN IX
glossopharyngeal
CN X
Vagus
CN XI
spinal accessory
CN XII
hypoglossal
structures involved in a reflex arc
receptor, afferent (sensory) neuron, efferent (motor) neuron, effector muscle/gland.
type of sensory neuron in reflex arc
dorsal root ganglion
type of motor neuron in refelx arc
ventral root ganglion
composed of corpora quadrigemina (tectum), tegmentum, and basis pedunculi
midbrain
composed of metencephalon and myelencephalon
hindbrain
major structures of metencephalon
cerebellum and pons
major structures of myelencephalon
medulla oblongata
composed of telencephalon and diencephalon
forebrain
telencephalon consists of
cererbum
diencephalon consists of
epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and subthalamus.
disorders due to dysfunction of basal ganglia
parkinson and huntington’s disease
the formation of the BBB is due to
astrocytes
blood brain barrier consists of
tight junctions
coordinates and maintains a steady-state among internal organs.
autonomic nervous system.
The autonomic nervous system is separated into
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
the neurotransmitter of the preganglionic neurons for both divisions of the autonomic nervous system is
acetylcholine.
the neurotransmitters for the sympathetic postganglionic fibers is
norepinephrine.
major control center for the autonomic nervous system
peripheral nervous system
Sensory system that relays information about touch, temperature, pain, and body position.
peripheral nervous system.
perception and awareness of the position of the body and its parts
proprioception
what is the gate in the gate control theory of pain?
substania gelatinosa
The gate control theory of pain
fibers open the gate and increase pain perception, closure of gates decrease pain perception.
These fibers transmit sharp, well-localized, and fast pain sensations.
A-delta fibers
These fibers transmit slow, dull, aching, or burning sensations that are poorly localized and longer acting.
C-fibers
episodic neurologic disorder with a headache lasting 4 to 72 hours
migraine
Spastic paralysis involves
upper motor neurons
Flaccid muscle paralysis involves
lower motor neurons
Type of paralysis where muscle groups are affected
spastic paralysis
Type of paralysis where hypertonia is present
spastic paralysis
type of paralysis where individual muscles are affected
flaccid muscle paralysis
type of paralysis where there is marked muscle atrophy
flaccid muscle paralysis
type of paralysis where hypotonia and hyporeflexia are present
flaccid muscle paralysis
diminished transmission at the neuromuscular junction
myasthenia gravis
hallmark symptom of myasthenia gravis
fatigue that worsens with activity and improves with rest.
Degeneration of the basal ganglia and decreased dopamine production.
Parkinson’s disease
S/S of parkinsons
resting tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia
Treatment for Parkinsons
levodopa, anticholinergic drugs, antihistamines
Inflammatory disease involving degeneration of CNS myelin due to scarring or plaque formation.
multiple sclerosis
cells involved in multiple sclerosis
T and B cells respond to autoantigens
two components of consciousness
arousal and awareness
entry of bacterial meningitis is through the
choroid plexus
meningitis causes
increase permeability of meningeal vessels and thickening of CSF resulting in cerebral edema.
Collection of illnesses characterized by thought disorders, which reflect a break in reality.
schizophrenia
shared by both members of a twin pair
concordant trait
not shared by both members of a twin pair
discordant trait
present at birth
congenital
variation is caused by combined effects of multiple genes
polygenic
variation is caused by combined effects of environment and genes
multifactorial
Multifactorial disease that are either present or absent must exceed this before the disease occurs
liability threshold
Occurrence of this can change from one population to another.
multifactorial diseases
Recurrent risks for multifactorial disorders are higher if..
more than one family is affected
Many factors that can be measured numerically, like BP are
multifactorial
Traits that have this distribution are usually caused by additive effects of many genetic and environmental factors.
bell-shaped
Recurrence risks are calculated for…
single-gene disorders
Empirical risks are calculated for
multifactorial disorders
An individual with whom a pedigree begins is called a
proband
Monozygotic twins are
identical twins
Genetic variation that promote autoimmunity are associated with
type 1 diabetes
Presenilin gene increases the risk for
Alzheimer’s disease
Angiotensinogen genes increase risk for
hypertension
leptin genes increase risk for
obesity
genes whose products interact with glutamate receptors increase risk for
schizophrenia
LDL receptor genes increase risk for
coronary artery disease
Process of making mRNA from a section of DNA
trascription
Proteins and DNA in the nucleus
chromatin
section of DNA that carries the code for a protein or noncoding RNA
gene
regulation of gene expression not caused by altered DNA sequence
epigenetics
DNA methylation leads to…
silencing of genes
Maintained in successive mitotic cell divisions
epigenetic modifications
the process of predictable gene silencing on one copy of a chromosome but not the other, depending on which parent transmits the chromosome
imprinting
carries the code for a protein to a ribosome
mRNA
Regulates gene expression
miRNA
DNA sequence mutations cannot be
altered directly
Epigenetic modifications can be
reversed
acetylation of histone tails allows
chromatin to unwind and transcription to occur
A gene that has methylation in this region is less likely to be transcribed into mRNA
promoter
MicroRNAs that stimulate development and progression of cancer are called
oncomirs
Genes that are necessary to maintain function of all types of cells and that normally remain transcriptionally active are called
housekeeping genes
Environmental factors, dietary factors, and alcohol intake can modify gene expression by causing
epigenetic modifications
Hypermethylation
silences
chromosomal deletion on chromosome 15 inherited by father.
Prader-Willi syndrome
In Prader-Willi syndrome, which copy of the crucial gene is imprinted (silenced)?
mother’s
Products of the metabolism of glucose
Co2, H20 and kilocalories
Where are ribosomes found?
nucleus
What is the purpose of ribosomes?
protein synthesis
How would you describe mitochondria?
powerhouse of cell
Is respiratory rate increased more in metabolic acidosis or metabolic alkalosis?
Metabolic acidosis- blowing off Co2
What would you expect a patient with carbon monoxide poisoning look like?
100% pulse ox
How would you treat carbon monoxide poisoning?
pressurized oxygen
Caseous necrosis can be caused by
tuberculosis infection
Aging involves
autoantibodies- deterioration of antibodies
hormone involved in the communication between the nervous and immune system
cortisol
Condition where the core temperature increases as the regulatory rate fails
Heat stroke
These decrease pain sensations
endorphins
Protein chemical messengers involved in inflammation
cytokines
Specific NT in Parkinson’s
Dopamine
The most common type of leukemia in children
acute lymphocytic leukemia
What is one good thing about ALL?
High cure rate
Produce cytokines and are involved in the pain process
Glial cells
Extra-pyramidal motor syndrome is manifested by loss of
postural reflexes
Cell capable of producing clones
B and T cells
When should pain be treated?
Before it starts
Most common cause of dementia
Alzheimer’s
The term for clusters of nerve cell bodies and dendrites located within the peripheral nervous system
Ganglia
Regions of the spinal cord where injuries occur most often
Cervical and lumbar
One of the jobs of the reticular activating systems is the
maintenance of wakefulness
diencephalon contains the
hypothalamus and thalamus
Neurons that carry impulses away from the CNS
efferent
Function of the somatic nervous system
Voluntary control of skeletal muscles
Conducts impulses to the cell body
dendrite
Create myelin sheath
Schwann cells
Proteins are sequences of
amino acids
The basic combination of genes in an organism
genotype
Risks for CVA
HTN, HLD, obesity, afib
focal neurologic defects of the brain or retina that usually clear without an infarct
TIA
Type of stroke that is temporary
TIA
Neurotransmitter involved in a migrane headache
serotonin
Type of CVA where blood would show up in CSF
hemorrhagic
Why is there only a one-way conduction at the synapse?
Only the presynaptic neuron contains neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters communicate with each other through
synapse
Cause of failure to adequately control chronic pain
undertreated
These types of patients display akinesia
Parkinson’s
Parts of the ECF
vascular and interstitial space
Controls body temperature
hypothalamus
CN responsible for balance
CN VIII-vestibulocochlear
If patient has a transection of the spinal cord C2, what’s the result?
respiratory failure since C2 controls diaphragm
End result of carbon monoxide poisoning
asphyxiation
Pathophysiology of carbon monoxide poisoning
Co2 binds more readily to Hgb than O2.
Treatment for carbon monoxide poisioning
pressurized Co2
A severe allergic reaction
anaphylaxis
Deranged cellular growth and abnormal cell shape and size
dysplasia
Cause of cellular swelling in early stages of cell injury
Na-K+ fails and unable to pump Na out of cell
Tissue type that lines the respiratory tract
Ciliated simple columnar
Autoimmune disease characterized by the production of autoantibodies against nuclear materals
SLE
Clinical manifestations of SLE
arthritis, rash, renal disease and anemia.
CN I function
sensory for smell
CN II function
sensory for vision
CN III function
motor for eye
CN IV function
motor for extraoculor eye muscle
CN V function
Sensory and motor for face
CN VI function
motor
CN VII function
sensory and motor
CN VIII function
sensory
CN IX function
sensory and motor
CN X function
sensory and motor
CN XI function
sensory and motor
CN XII function
sensory and motor
Neurotransmistter related to Alzheimers
acetylcholine
Collectins play a major role in protection against
respiratory tract infections
Molecules that tag microorganisms for destruction by cells of the inflammatory system (neutrophils & macrophages).
Opsonins
leukocytes are divided into
granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes
Binding of histamine to H1 receptor causes
inflammation
Binding of histamine to H2 receptor causes
anti-inflammatory response
Released by mast cells that causes dilation and increased permeability
Histamine
The H1 receptor is present on
smooth muscle cells, especially bronchi
prostaglandins are known to
induce pain
Primary granulocyte to arrive early in inflammatory process
Neutrophils
Because neutrophils are short lived, they become a component of
pus
macrophages are derived from
monocytes
chronic inflammations lasts
2 weeks or longer
These may form if neutrophils and macrophages are unable to destroy microorganisms during the acute inflammatory response
granulomas`
normal gene that codes for proteins that stimulate cell proliferation.
proto-oncogene
proto-oncogene that is mutated accelerating cell proliferation.
oncogene
code for proteins that suppress cell proliferation.
Tumor suppressor gene
Abnormal premalignant growths in epithelial tissues that have not crossed the basement membrane
carcinoma in situ
The most common neuron, multipolar neuron, has
multiple dendrites and one axon
excessive movement
hyperkinesia
abnormally increased muscle tone
hypertonia
decerebrate posturing is caused by damage to the
brainstem and cerebrum
decorticate posturing is caused by damage to the
cerebral cortex
involves degeneration of both upper and lower motor neurons
ALS
Yawning and hiccups are motor responses from the
brainstem
characterized by dangerously severe muscle weakness, diarrhea, intestinal cramping, and signs of anticholinesterase drug toxicity.
cholinergic crisis
severe muscle weakness caused by myasthenia gravis
myasthenic crisis
Bleeding between the dura matter and skull
epidural hematoma
Gap junctions synchronize contractions of heart muscle cells through
ionic coupling
Cell surface receptors use second messengers because
The ligand (first messenger) cannot enter the cell.
interphase includes phases
G1, S, and G2
A very large excess of reactive oxygen species tends to cause
necrosis
A small excess of reactive oxygen species can cause
apoptosis
During apoptosis, the cytoskeleton is dismantled, causing the cell
to shrink
Phosphate has an inverse relationship with
Calcium
Parathyroid hormone is secreted with there is
low calcium concentration
Calcitonin is secreted when there is
high calcium concentration
Parathyroid has a direct relationship with
Calcium
In what direction does insulin move potassium
Into the cell
Prevalence rate is the
number of newly diagnosed over total number of people
The incidence rate is the
Number of people who had disease in a period of time over total number of people
Inflammatory cytokines cause
fever
Do malignant tumors have a capsule?
No
When cancers release substances into the blood that cause effects elsewhere in the body
paraneoplastic syndrome
involves flexor spasms, profuse sweating, piloerection, and automatic bladder emptying.
Mass reflex
occurs when there is massive reflex firing of the sympathetic nerves below the level of injury. The latter causes severe hypertension and other signs and symptoms related to the sympathetic nervous system.
Autonomic dysreflexia
Typical signs of autonomic dysreflexia
hypertension and bradycardia
