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Path Fall > Patho Process Pt 1 > Flashcards

Patho Process Pt 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a promoter?

A

DNA that initiates gene transcription

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2
Q

What is an enhancer?

A

DNA that modulates gene expression by looping back onto promoters and recruiting additional factors needed to drive the expression of pre-mRNA species

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3
Q

What do noncoding regulatory RNAs do?

A

Regulate gene expression

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4
Q

What are mobile genetic elements? (e.g. transposons)

A

These segments “cruise around the genome” and are implicated in gene regulation and chromatin organization

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5
Q

What are telomeres?

A

Chromosome ends that control cell aging

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6
Q

What are centromeres?

A

During mitosis, chromatids are connected at centromeres

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7
Q

How is chromatin organized?

A

Genetic DNA is packed into nucleosomes, composed of 147 base pair DNA segments wrapped around central core of proteins called histones. Nucleosomes look like beads joined by short DNA linkers. This entire structure is called chromatin

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8
Q

What is heterochromatin?

A

Histochemically dense, no gene transcription ocurring

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9
Q

What is euchromatin?

A

Histochemically dispersed, transcriptionally active

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10
Q

What are miRNA?

A

Postranscriptionally silence modify RNA, protect us against viruses by recognizing virally inserted DNA

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11
Q

What is smooth ER?

A

Responsible for metabolism of certain chemicals and some sequester calcium

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12
Q

What are endosomes?

A

Responsible for intracellular transport and export, ingestion of extracellular substances

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13
Q

What are peroxisomes?

A

Vesicles that contain oxidase enzymes that use molecular O2 to detoxify harmful substances, disarm free radicals, involved in myelinating nerve cells

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14
Q

General structure of plasma membrane?

A

Bilayer phospholipid membrane with hydrophilic heads facing outwards and hydrophobic tails in the middle. Studded with proteins and glycolipids.

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15
Q

What are channel proteins?

A

Hydrophilic pores that permit rapid movement of solutes driven by concentration gradients

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16
Q

What are carrier proteins?

A

Bind to specific solute, slowly transfer its ligand against concentration gradient

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17
Q

What are caveolar-mediated vesicles?

A

Invaginations of plasma membrane coated by caveolin proteins. Endocytosis of fluid, proteins, vitamins. Generally does not use receptors.

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18
Q

What are clathrin-mediated vesicles?

A

Invaginations of plasma membrane coated by clathrin proteins which bind after surface receptor-ligand binding.

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19
Q

What is pinocytosis?

A

Endocytosis of fluid and receptor-ligand pairs (involves clathrin proteins). Does use receptors. “Cellular drinking”

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20
Q

What is exocytosis?

A

Large molecules are exported from cells when vesicles fuse with plasma membrane and discharge contents

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21
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

Invagination of large particles by special phagocytic cells (does not use clathrin proteins)

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22
Q

What is transcytosis?

A

Movement of endocytosed vesicles between apical and basolateral membranes. In one side, goes through cell, out the other. Causes rapid movement of proteins or fluid.

23
Q

What are actin myofilaments?

A

Form networks and bundles that control cell shape and movement. In muscle cells, binds to myosin (powered by ATP) to contract muscles.

24
Q

What are intermediate filaments?

A

Impart tensile strength and allow cell to bear mechanical stress. Also anchor organelles and help maintain shape of cell

25
Q

What are microtubules?

A

Allow movement of vesicles and organelles, support chromatid separation in mitosis, provide structure to cilia and flagella

26
Q

What are occluding junctions (tight junctions)?

A

Seal adjacent cells together.
Restrict movement of ions and molecules.
Maintain apical and basolateral surfaces (polarity).
Controls what materials pass through.

27
Q

What are anchoring junctions (desmosomes)?

A

Mechanically attach cells and intracellular cytoskeletons to extracellular matrix/basolateral membrane using integrins (i.e. hemidesmosomes) and other cells using cadherins (spot desmosomes)

28
Q

What are communicating junctions (gap junctions)?

A

Allow passage of chemical or electrical signals from cell to cell.
Pores (connexons) open/close to permit passage of ions, nucleotides, sugars, amino acids, vitamins, other small molecules.
Cardiac myocytes allow quick passage of electrical signal.

29
Q

How might mitochondrial DNA disorders be inherited?

A

Mitochondria are inherited from the mother because the vast majority of organelles in the fertilized zygote are derived from the ovum. Mitochondrial disorders may be x-linked, autosomal, or maternally inherited and will have varying penetrance.

30
Q

What are 4 sources of signals that cells can respond to?

A
  1. Pathogens and damage to neighboring cells.
  2. Cell-cell contacts, mediated through adhesion molecules or gap junctions.
  3. Cell-Extra cellular matrix contacts, mediated through integrin proteins.
  4. Secreted molecules, such as growth factors, cytokines, hormones.
31
Q

What is the difference between intracellular and cell-surface receptors?

A

Intracellular receptors are inside the cell and are activated by lipid soluble ligands that diffuse through the membrane (e.g. vitamin D, steroid hormones). Cell-surface receptors are located in the membrane and bind to their ligands in extracellular space.

32
Q

What are receptor tyrosine kinases?

A

Receptors that has a tyrosine (amino acid) “tail” sticking out inside the cytoplasm. The tail acts as a phosphorylating enzyme.

33
Q

What are nuclear receptors?

A

Lipid-soluble ligands that diffuse into the cell to bind to nuclear DNA in order to activate or repress gene transcription

34
Q

What are notch receptors?

A

When ligand binds with receptor in cell membrane, the receptor is cleaved or broken up, with the receptor fragment entering the nucleus to influence gene transcription

35
Q

What are Wnt/Frizzled receptors?

A

Receptors that regulates Beta-catenin proteins that enter nucleus and influence gene transcription

36
Q

What is autocrine signaling?

A

When cells target themselves

37
Q

What is paracrine signaling?

A

When cells target nearby cells

38
Q

What is endocrine signaling?

A

Cells receiving instructions from afar through the bloodstream

39
Q

What is neuronal signaling?

A

Signaling using neuron synapses for quick communication

40
Q

What is epidermal growth factor (EGF)?

A

SOURCES: Macrophages, salivary glands, keratinocytes, other cells.
FUNCTIONS: Stimulates keratinocyte migration, formation of granulation tissue, mitosis of keratinocytes and fibroblasts

41
Q

What is transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-alpha)?

A

SOURCES: Macrophages, keratinocytes, other cells.
FUNCTIONS: Stimulates proliferation and hepatocytes and epithelial cells

42
Q

What is vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)?

A

SOURCE: Mesenchymal cells.
FUNCTIONS: Stimulates proliferation of endothelial cells, increases vascular permeability.

43
Q

What is platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)?

A

SOURCES: Platelets, macrophages, endothelial cells, smooth muscle, keratinocytes.
FUNCTIONS: Chemotactic for neutrophils, macrophages, fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells. Stimulates proliferation of fibroblasts, endothelial, and other cells. Stimulates extra-cellular matrix protein synthesis.

44
Q

What is transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta)?

A

SOURCES: Platelets, T lymphocytes, macrophages, endothelial cells, keratinocytes, smooth muscle, fibroblasts.
FUNCTIONS: Chemotactic for leukocytes and fibroblasts. Stimulates extra-cellular matrix protein synthesis. Suppresses acute inflammation.

45
Q

What are the key functions of extra-cellular matrix?

A

Cell anchoring, mechanical support for cell migration and polarity, binding/displaying growth factors, maintenance of tissue structure and integrity, forming boundaries between epithelium and connective tissue.

46
Q

What are the 2 forms of extra cellular matrix?

A
  1. Interstitial matrix, between connective tissue cells, parenchymal epithelium and vascular and smooth muscle structures
  2. Basement membrane, found around epithelial/endothelial/smooth muscle cells. Anchors cells.
47
Q

What is collagen?

A

Triple helix of polypeptide chains cross-linked. Fibrillar collagen forms major portion of connective tissue while non-fibrillar collagen is found in basement membranes.

48
Q

What is elastin?

A

Made of elastic fibers and coated with fibrillin mesh, gives tissues ability to recoil and recover original shape after physical deformation. Important in cardiac valves, large blood vessels, uterus, skin, ligaments

49
Q

What is Fibroconectin?

A

Numerous binding domains linked by disulfide bridge. Exists in tissue and plasma. Synthesized by fibroblasts, monocytes and epithelium to help with healing wounds and angiogenesis.

50
Q

What is laminin?

A

Cross-shaped molecule. Most abundant glycoprotein in basement membrane. Attaches cells to basement membrane.

51
Q

What are integrins?

A

Alpha and beta subunits of transmembrane glycoproteins that allow cells to attach to extracellular matrix components, mediates cell-cell interactions (i.e. integrins on leukocytes helping adhesion to endothelium at inflammation sites and platelet aggregation)

52
Q

What are the two main types of stem cells?

A
  1. Totipotent stem cells: Stem cells that give rise to ALL types of differentiated tissues, prominent during development, rare in adults.
  2. Adult stem cells: stem cells that can replace damaged cells and maintain population in specific tissues only where they are located. Found in mature organisms, orginate from bone marrow and become WBCs, RBCs, and platelets
53
Q

What are the 2 most important properties in homeostasis?

A
  1. Self-renewal: stem cells can maintain their numbers. Either asymmetric or symmetric division.
  2. Asymmetric division: During cell replication, one daughter cell differentiates and produces mature cell while the other daughter cell remains undifferentiated and is able to self-renew. (Symmetric division: both daughter cells retain self-renewal capacity)

Path Fall (8 decks)

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