past paper questions Flashcards
what is meant by self- disclosure?
•revealing personal information about the self to another person
•information can be superficial (low risk) or more intimate (high risk)
•breadth/ depth (eg wishes, fears, aspirations)
•has the general effect of increasing attractiveness and closeness; encourages reciprocal disclosure
outline one strength of self disclosure as an explanation for attraction in romantic relationships
•consistent with social penetration theory which suggests that for a relationship to develop partners much keep disclosing further personal information
•correlations between levels of self disclosure and satisfaction with the relationship
•compatibility with filter theory; self disclosure enables assessment of similarity of attitudes and complementarity of needs
•supported by evidence which shows that too much, too early can be off putting to a potential partner- acceptability depends on stage of relationship and appropriateness of the content
outline one limitation of self-disclosure as an explanation for attraction in romantic relationships
•contrast with the relative importance of other factors (physical attractiveness/ equity/ social exchange)
•cultural limitations; self disclosure may be less appropriate for romantic relationships in cultures where partners are not allowed free choice; research is often culture specific
•difficult to determine cause and effect, ie whether self disclosure leads to a stronger relationship or whether having a stronger relationship leads to greater self disclosure
what is ducks phase model of relationship breakdown?
•duck (1982) described how relationship breakdown occurs in a sequence of four stages/ phases
•intra-psychic stage- one partner is dissatisfied, keeps it to self, ruminates
•dyadic stage- problem is raised openly and discussed between partners
•social stage- friends/ family are told, time of negotiation, settling of arrangements
•grave dressing stage- post relationship rationalisation of events and re building
possible discussion points for ducks phase model of relationship breakdown
•recognises that breakdown is a process rather than a single event
•takes account of the social context in which breakdown of relationships occurs
•grave dressing enables a positive view
•inadequacy of the original model- Duck added a 5th stage ‘resurrection’ as a time to look towards future relationships
•useful for counsellors
•does not account for the initial dissatisfaction so it describes rather than explains
•the stages do not always occur in order
•model is largely built on retrospective, self report evidence
•model is founded on western cultural ideals so has limited application in other cultures
describe the absorption addiction model of parasocial relationships
•parasocial relationships focused on a celebrity make up for inadequacies/ deficiencies/ dissatisfaction in a persons life/ relationships and give a sense of identity
•absorption- people with weaker personal identity may become totally consumed with the life of the celebrity and begin to identify with them
•addiction- at the extreme the person seeks ever greater involvement so the parasocial relationship becomes all consuming
•levels of involvement are characterised by McCutcheon & Maltby using the CAS:
- entertainment social (eg discussion with friends about interesting celebrities)
- intense- personal (eg private obsession/ feeling of personal connection)
- borderline pathological (eg extreme behaviours such as stalking)
possible discussion points for the absorption addiction model of parasocial relationships
•comparison with alternative explanations (eg the attachment explanation)
•links between borderline pathological level and poor mental health, social isolation, social incompetence and other addictions
•mediating effects of personality traits such as impulsivity, extroversion and neuroticism
•usefulness of measuring instruments such as the CAS- includes distractor items to avoid response bias
•allowing for a distinction between pathological and non-pathological parasocial relationships
•evaluation of methods
•evidence
briefly outline the absorption addiction model of parasocial relationships
•parasocial relationships make up for deficits in real life relationships
•parasocial relationships enable a sense of identity
•addictive nature means that parasocial relationships escalate through a series of stages
explain two limitations of the absorption addiction model of parasocial relationships
•views parasocial relationships as psychopathical and this negative in contrast to the positive/ active view
•evaluative comparison with attachment explanation
•the absorption- addiction model provides a description rather than an explanation for the processes involved in parasocial relationships
•use of evidence against the model
•broader scientific issues (difficulty showing cause and effect)
•limited availability of evidence- problems of testability
what are factors affecting attraction in romantic relationships?
•self disclosure is the sharing of personal information about self- increased attraction
•physical attractiveness- good looking people are deemed to be more attractive
•filter theory (field of available/ desirables) - we tend to be attracted by those who pass through a series of filters as follows
- those who fit a certain social demographic
- those who are similar in attitude/ background ect
- those who compliment our emotional needs
evaluation points for factors affecting attraction in romantic relationships
•difference between role of factors in initial attraction and their role in continuing attraction
•use of evidence to support (kerckoff and davis longitudinal study of similarity and meeting needs)
•role of attractiveness and link to theory eg murstein’s matching hypothesis
•self disclosure is only effective if appropriate to the stage in relationship- too much too soon has the opposite effect
•evaluation in the context of general relationship theories (exchange theory)
what is social exchange theory?
a theory that proposes individuals focus on getting more than they put in
what is the filter theory of attraction?
•kerckhoff and david proposed we use filtering to reduce the field of availables to a field of desirables
•we engage in three levels of filtering
-social demography
-similarity in attitude
-complementarity
discussion points for filter theory
+kerckhoff and david research
+consistent with the matching hypothesis
-cannot establish causality
-low temporal validity (technology reduces the application of the social demography stage)
what is rusbult’s model of romantic relationships
•rusbult developed SET by proposing the investment model
•saw committment is the key factor in sustaining a relationship- commitment depends on satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment
•satisfaction is determined by available alternatives- better alternatives equates to less satisfaction
•investment acts as a deterrent to leaving a relationship (intrinsic/ extrinsic investment)
strengths of rusbult’s investment model
•rusbult- support for the model in homosexual couples
•explains why people stay in relationships that appear to offer few rewards
•is an improvement in relation to other theories (SET, equity)
use your knowledge of theories of romantic relationships to explain the comments made by chris and sam
•SET- chris refers to the costs and rewards of the relationship, chris considers the comparison level- compares his relationship with others
•EQUITY- ‘balance’, neither party is underbenefitting or overbenefitting
RUSBULTS INVESTMENT THEORY- both made intrinsic and extrinsic investments
•comparison with alternatives
what is self disclosure in virtual relationships?
•self disclosure in virtual relationships happens more quickly than in FtF interaction due to anonymity
•increased self disclosure (amount and type of content) means relationships become deeper/intimate more quickly- they are more hyperpersonal (walther)
•the hyperpersonal model- individuals can engage in selective self- presentation (only reveal what they choose to reveal)
what is the absence of gating in virtual relationships?
•refers to how virtual relationships are not affected by some of the usual barriers that constrain relationship formation in real-life encounters
•examples include distance, lack of physical attractiveness, social anxiety/ blushing/ stammering
discussion of self disclosure/ absence of gating in virtual relationships
•evidence
•interaction between the two (socially anxious individuals may self disclose more due to the absence of gates)
•reduced cues theory- anonymity could lead to disinhibition
•too much self disclosure too early can be off putting
•it becomes easier to catfish
•easier for socially anxious people to maintain relationships (71% lasts over two years)
•multi modal relationships
describe ducks phase model of relationship breakdown
•a model that describes the four phases of relationship breakdown
•intra-psychic phase: a partner thinks about his/ her dissatisfaction with the relationship but this is not disclosed to the other
•dyadic phase: both partners are aware of the problem, there is confrontation/ discussion
•social phase: parents disclose their problems to others- friends, family become aware of the breakdown of the relationship
•grave dressing phase: each partner comes to terms with the breakdown and rationalises it by constructing a narrative of events
use your knowledge of self- disclosure in virtual relationships to explain the advice given by Anji’s friends
•A’s advice is in line with the hyperpersonal model of online relationships (Walther) suggesting there is greater self disclosure in online ones
•this leads to virtual relationships developing more quickly (social penetration theory)
•B warns against disinhibition which can occur in virtual relationships because of the anonymity/ deindividuation
•disinhibition might lead to critical comments about Anji’s personal disclosures
why do people develop parasocial relationships?
•at a superficial level relationships provide a source of entertainment (entertainment-social)
•at more extreme levels, they are explained due to absorption-addiction or attachment problems
what are the absorption addiction / attachment explanations of parasocial relationships?
•absorption- addiction: such relationships are due to personal inadequacies (weak identity, desire to escape real life, poor irl relationships), this leads to desire for complete psychological involvement in the celebrity’s life and the mistaken delusion that the feeling is reciprocated
•attachment explanation: insecure-resistant types feel need for fulfilment through relationships that do not involve chance of rejection
evaluation points for the reasons why people develop parasocial relationships
+meloy- links between stalking and social incompetence
+basis of attachment explanation in bowlbys theory
+links between personality type and the level of parasocial relationships
-absorption model is more descriptive than explanatory
-tendency is culturally universal- may be a universal need
-discussion of how methodology of specific studies might limit what it can tell us (correlations/ self report)
investment is one feature of the investment model of relationships- identify one other feature
either
•satisfaction
•commitment
•comparison with alternatives
explain one limitation of a self report technique
•questions validity, lacks objectivity
what are evolutionary explanations for partner preferences?
•natural selection theory: genes that confer reproductive advantage will increase the gene pool
•intra-sexual selection: usually when men compete for females leading to female-male dimorphism- an accentuation of secondary sexual characteristics in those with greater reproductive fitness
•inter-sexual selection: usually females choosing from prospective males according to attractiveness, quality over quantity
evaluation points for the evolutionary explanation of partner preferences
•conflict between natural selection and sexual selection
•studies demonstrating how men go for quantity over quality and women do not
•handicap principle
•both partners use similar mating strategies when looking for a long term partnership
