Past paper Questions

Question 1

Explain the physical causes of climate change (8)

Answer 1

• Milankovitch’s theory: changes in the earth’s orbit/tilt (1 mark) alter the
  amount of energy reaching the Earth (1 mark)
• every 41,000 years, there is a change in the tilt of the Earth’s axis (1 mark).
  A greater tilt means more sunlight in polar regions (1 mark) and over a 97,000-
  year cycle, the Earth’s orbit stretches (1 mark)
• global temperatures can be raised by peaks of sunspot activity (1 mark), which
  follow an 11-year pattern (1 mark)
• after volcanic eruptions, large amounts of dust and droplets of sulphur (1 mark)
  may absorb and reflect the sun’s rays lowering temperature (1 mark)
• retreating ice caps release additional fresh water (1 mark) leading to changes
  in oceanic circulation (1 mark). This also reduces the albedo effect (1 mark) as
  reflection has decreased as more land is exposed (1 mark). Methane is being
  released from melting permafrost (1 mark).

Question 2

Many strategies have been implemented to both reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and to manage the effects of climate change.
(i) Describe strategies you have studied and
(ii) comment on their effectiveness. (12)

Answer 2

• the government encourages households to reduce, reuse and recycle products
  so that less refuse is sent to landfill sites (1 A mark). This will reduce the
  amount of methane entering the atmosphere (1 A mark)
• households could reduce energy consumption by insulating their homes /
  switching lights off (1 A mark)
• all new buildings in Scotland have to have low carbon heating systems after
  2024 (1 A mark)
• people could also be encouraged to use public transport, walk or cycle,
  (1 A mark) or use hybrid or electric cars to cut down on fossil fuel consumption
  (1 A mark), however these are often too expensive for to purchase (1 B mark)
• disposal of older fridges should be managed carefully to ensure CFC gases don’t
  escape (1 A mark), however there are still a lot in low-income countries which
  could lead to an issue in the future (1 B mark)
• Government Policies such as ‘Helping Households to cut their Energy Bills’
  (1 EG mark) encouraged the use of smart meters improving energy efficiency
  (1 A mark). However, the deadline has been moved to 2025 as the technology
  was not ready (1 B mark)
• increasing the use of low carbon technologies such as windfarms (1 A mark) —
  the UK Government is committed to creating 20% of energy by renewable
  sources (1 A mark). In 2020 97% of Scotland’s electricity demand was met by
  renewables (1 B mark)
• the Paris Agreement (1 EG mark) outlined agreements between leaders of
  developed and developing countries to limit climate change to below a 2oC rise
  (1 A mark)
• to prepare for extreme weather events such as flooding (1 A mark) defences
  could be built to hold back flood water (1 A mark). For example, the Thames
  Flood Barrier (1 EG mark) is a series of gates which can be raised across the
  river to prevent sea water flooding London (1 A mark). This has successfully
  protected London from flooding on numerous occasions (1 B mark). However, a
  second barrier may be needed to cope with flooding beyond 2070

Question 3

Suggest reasons for the different methods of energy production around the
world.

Answer 3

• Qatar generates all its electricity from oil as it has massive reserves (1 mark)
  infrastructure for oil extraction is already in place (1 mark).
• Canada has the largest amount of Hydroelectric Power because it has large
  amounts of precipitation (1 mark) and fast flowing major rivers that can be
  harnessed. (1 mark). Mountainous regions provide steep slopes to generate
  power (1 mark)
• Kenya lies partly in an area of tectonic weakness (1 mark) where steam from
  reservoirs of hot water found a few miles or more below the earth’s surface is
  harnessed to generate geothermal electricity (1 mark).
• France has limited fossil fuel reserves and have invested in nuclear energy as a
  result (1 mark) as a peaceful stable country it is feels safe to have nuclear
  power stations (1 mark)
• nuclear power allows energy to be produced as and when required (1 mark).
• having a secure energy supply is important for European countries due to
  concerns about the reliability and security of importing natural gas from Russia
  (2 marks)
• Italy is closer to the Equator (1 mark) and is under the influence of high
  pressure for much of the year (1 mark), giving clear skies and long hours of
  sunshine making it ideal for solar power generation (1 mark)
• Scotland has a large coastline which allows for an uninterrupted wind flow
  (1 mark). Scotland is also a wealthy country which means it can invest in more
  expensive wind turbines (1 mark). Scotland frequently experiences low pressure
  (1 mark) and associated winds sufficient to generate wind power, especially
  over exposed uplands (1 mark).

Question 4

Comment on the effectiveness of tidal power, or any other renewable source of
energy you have studied, in meeting the energy demands of a country. (12)

Answer 4

Possible answers for all renewable energy sources might include:
* infinite energy resources/sources of power that are sustainable/cannot run out
(1 mark)
* independent production of energy reducing the need for reliance on imports of
fuel (1 mark).
For tidal power, other possible answers could include:
* potential in countries such as Scotland, with a windy climate and exposed
coastline (1 mark), for example the Pentland Firth (1 EG mark) to generate 50%
of all electricity needs (1 mark)
* more predictable and reliable than wind power (1 mark)
* turbine rotors can turn 180 degrees, to harness power from tides as they move
in and out (1 mark)
* more efficient (80%) at low speeds in converting water into electricity than
wind power (1 mark), as water is 1000 times denser than air (1 mark)
* where surplus is generated, it can be stored (1 mark) and sold for profit
(1 mark)
* tidal energy is an expensive form of energy production (1 mark)
* despite working on tidal turbine technology in Orkney, this is not yet
sufficiently advanced to allow for large scale production (1 mark)
* often found in locations far from areas of high demand (1 mark)
* limited energy potential ― powerful tides only occur 10 hours in a day.

Question 5

Explain the formation of a ribbon lake.

Answer 5

Glacier formation includes:
* snow accumulates in north facing hollows (1 mark) when more snow falls in
winter than melts in the summer (1 mark)
* north/north-east facing slopes are more shaded so snow lies longer (1 mark)
with accumulated snow compressed into névé and eventually ice. (1 mark)
Processes include:
* plucking when ice freezes on to bedrock (1 P mark), pulling loose rocks away
from the valley side (1 P mark)
* abrasion when the angular rock embedded in the ice (1 P mark) grinds the
valley floor as glacier moves (1 P mark)
* frost shattering/freeze thaw weathering when water in cracks in the rock
freezes (1 P mark), expands and contracts weakening the rock until fragments
break off (1 P mark)
* the glacier moves downhill due to gravity/weight (1 mark)
* former interlocking spurs may be cut off by glacier (1 mark) resulting in steep
crags or truncated spurs (1 mark)
* ribbon lakes can form where softer bedrock is eroded more deeply than the
surrounding area (1 mark)
* ribbon lakes can form where a terminal or recessional moraine creates a dam
(1 mark)
* an example is Loch Muick. (1 EG mark)

Question 6

suggest reasons why these changes in discharge levels may have occurred on Hydrograph

Answer 6

Explanations may include:
* the rising limb is caused by the initial rainfall which began at 10:00 (1 B mark)
* there is a second smaller peak due to a secondary period of rainfall. (1 B mark)
The long lag time/gently rising limb may be due to:
* the initial rainfall may have been intercepted by vegetation (1 B mark)
* likely a rural area with a lack of tarmac increasing infiltration (1 B mark)
* there may be a low number of tributaries transporting water to the channel
slowly (1 B mark)
* the catchment area may be gently sloping leading to slower initial overland
flow to the channel (1 B mark)
* it may be a large catchment area meaning more travel time to the main
channel (1 B mark)
* there may be porous soils/peaty soils increasing soil storage (1 B mark)
* there may be permeable rock allowing for increased groundwater storage
(1 B mark)
* the river rises because soil storage has been exceeded. (1 B mark)

Question 7

Explain the formation of a waterfall. (8)

Answer 7

Processes:
* hydraulic action which is when water compresses air (1 P mark) into the
riverbank causing materials to be dislodged (1 P mark)
* abrasion when the force of the water throws bedload (1 P mark) against the
banks causing a scouring action (1 P mark)
* solution when acids in the water (1 P mark) react with soluble bedrock with
(1 P mark)
* attrition when load is thrown against other particles in the water (1 P mark)
causing it to become smaller and rounder. (1 P mark)

Waterfall:
* differential erosion takes place / soft rock erodes quicker (1 mark) over bands
of more and less resistant rock/where harder rock is overlaying softer
rock/bands of hard/soft rock (1 mark)
* undercutting causes an overhang / unsupported rock (1 mark) which collapses
into the plunge pool due to gravity (1 mark)
* the plunge pool can be further deepened by materials from the collapse
(1 mark)
* the waterfall retreats upstream. (1 mark)

Question 8

Explain how atmospheric circulation cells and the associated surface winds assist in
redistributing energy around the world. (8)

Answer 8

For the northern hemisphere, answers may include:
* winds are deflected to the right due to the Coriolis Effect (1 mark) which is
caused by the spinning of the Earth (1 mark)
* warm air is distributed to higher / cooler latitudes and cold air is distributed to
lower/warmer latitudes (1 mark)
* the Hadley/Polar Cells are thermally direct (1 mark) and the Ferrel Cell is
thermally indirect. (1 mark)
Hadley cell:
* warm air rises at the Equator creating low pressure (1 mark)
* the air splits in the atmosphere and moves towards the poles (1 mark)
* air cools and sinks at the Tropics / 30o creating high pressure (1 mark)
* the North East Trade (1 EG mark) winds move air back to the Equator (1 mark)
completing the Hadley cell. (1 EG mark)
Polar cell:
* cold air sinking at the poles creates a high pressure area (1 mark)
* the Polar Easterlies (1 EG mark) transfer cold air from the poles to the Polar
front/towards the Equator (1 mark)
* here it meets warmer air from the tropics, causing air to rise (1 mark)
* air moves back to the Poles in the upper atmosphere (1 mark) completing the
Polar Cell. (1 EG mark)
Ferrel cell:
* the Ferrel cell is located between 30oN and 60oN (1 EG mark), the Ferrel cell
transfers air between the Hadley and Polar cells (1 mark) forming the
westerlies. (1 EG mark)

Question 9

Draw a fully annotated soil profile of a podzol soil to describe its main characteristics
(including horizons, colour, texture and drainage), and associated vegetation. (8)

Answer 9

• coniferous woodland/heather moorland (1 mark)
• layer of needles and cones (1 mark)
• black humus (1 mark), mor/acidic humus (1 mark)
• some darker staining in upper A horizon (1 mark)
• shallow spreading roots (1 mark)
• ash grey lower A horizon (1 mark) with sandy texture
  (1 mark)
• iron pan develops in lower A / B horizon (1 mark)
  impeding drainage (1 mark) Well defined horizons
  (1 mark), few soil biota (1 mark)
• B horizon is reddish brown (1 mark) with denser
  texture (1 mark)
• downward movement of water (1 mark)
• C horizon is generally glacial or fluvioglacial material
  (1 mark)
• partially/not well weathered parental material.
  (1 mark)

Question 10

Describe different methods used by countries to collect population data. (6)

Answer 10

• census is a survey carried out every 10 years (1 mark)
• each householder is legally required to complete a detailed questionnaire
  (1 mark)
• householders answer other questions on their social, economic and cultural
  background (1 mark)
• civil registration of births and deaths (1 mark) provide an up-to-date count
  between censuses (1 mark)
• Scottish Household Survey is a continuous survey (1 mark) based on a random
  sample of the population (1 mark) which is cheaper than carrying out a full
  census (1 mark)
• governments also collect data on migration, for example visa applications
  (1 mark) and NHS records provide health data. (1 mark)

Question 11

For Edinburgh, or any developed world city you have studied:
(a) describe the strategies used to improve housing, and
(b) comment on the effectiveness of these strategies.

Answer 11

In Leith:
* new tenement style housing with security entry/off street parking has been
built (1 A mark)
* Damp/anti-social high-rise flats were demolished or upgraded (1 A mark) the 22
storey Cairngorm/Grampian House (1 EG mark)
* some new houses were designed with a nautical theme (1 A mark) and other
old industrial buildings were repurposed as flats (1 A mark)
* improved amenities for local people have been built (1 A mark) For example
Ocean Terminal (1 EG mark)
* more affordable housing has been provided by local housing associations
(1 A mark) Port of Leith Housing Association (1 EG mark)
* Old dock areas have had new style higher rise apartment blocks added
(1 A mark)
* a private health club and new restaurants provide employment opportunities in
the area. (1 A mark)
Comments on effectiveness may include:
* Increased house prices have priced original residents out of the market
(1 B mark)
* the demolition of historic sites have led to campaigning and conflict (1 B mark)
including the ‘Save Leith Walk’ campaign. (1 EG mark) which was successful in
preventing the demolition of a historic area (1 B mark)
* most improvements have been in keeping with the local heritage of the area
(1 B mark)
* more affluent residents have been attracted to the area which has improved
the perception of the area. (1 B mark)

Question 12

Many strategies have been implemented to manage transport in Rio de Janeiro.
For Rio de Janeiro, or any other developing world city you have studied:
(a) describe the strategies used and
(b) explain how these strategies manage transport problems

Answer 12

Improvements to public transport
* the mayor has announced a 15 year plan to develop a light rail network to
replace the BRT (1 A mark) this manages transport by increasing the capacity of
the public transport network (1 B mark)
* the Transcarioca (1 EG mark) connects Barra di Tijuca with the Galeão
International Airport which was important for the spectators at the 2016
Olympics (1 A mark). Articulated buses manage transport by increasing
passenger numbers which can be carried per bus (1 B mark)
* the number of cycle lanes across the city has been increased (1 A mark) and
Bike Rio/Itaú (1 EG mark) has 3100 bicycles which are available at 310 rental
stations across the city (1 A mark) this manages transport by creating a safe
alternative to travelling by car (1 B mark)
* Metro Rio has extended by adding Line 4 which added an extra six stations
(1 A mark) this manages transport by relieving pressure on already congested
routes towards the CBD (1 B mark)
* the Yellow Line Expressway (1 EG mark) bypasses the busy city centre.
(1 A mark) the government have invested in new toll roads (1 A mark) to help
finance new road development to reduce traffic congestion (1 B mark)
* The Rio-Niteroi bridge (1 EG mark) connects Rio to the commuter area of
Niterói/São Gonçalo (1 A mark) this manages transport by reducing pressure on
ferry services (1 B mark)
* Gondolas were added to connect some favelas to the city centre. (1 A mark)

Question 13

Referring to a glaciated or coastal area you have studied, discuss the conflicts caused by
the various land uses. (8)

Answer 13

For the Dorset Coast:
* traffic congestion on narrow rural roads (1 mark) for example heading to Corfe
Castle (1 EG mark) leads to high levels of air and noise pollution (1 mark)
* tourists park on grass verges leading to erosion (1 mark) for example Lulworth
Cove (1 EG mark)
* tourists wander off footpaths widening them (1 mark) for example the
South West coastal path (1 EG mark) and stone walls can be damaged by people
climbing over them (1 mark)
* litter if eaten by wildlife or livestock can harm or kill (1 mark)
* tourists leave gates open causing farm animals to escape (1 mark)
* dogs off leads can worry sheep leading to miscarriages (1 mark) this will reduce
the farmers income due to vet bills / loss of profit (1 mark)
* quarrying can also lead to visual pollution in the spectacular landscape (1 mark)
for example Swanworth quarry (1 EG mark)
* tourists buying second homes pushes prices up for locals (1 mark) and can lead
to rural depopulation, (1 mark) which can reduce demand for local services
which may close. (1 mark)

Question 14

(a) Explain the human causes of climate change.(8)

Answer 14

• burning fossil fuels, e.g. coal, oil and natural gas release Carbon Dioxide into
  the atmosphere (1 mark)
• coal has been used increasingly to power factories/generate electricity in power
  stations to heat homes (1 mark)
• increased car ownership has resulted in more petrol and diesel being used to
  fuel cars (1 mark)
• increased car exhaust emissions have resulted in more Nitrous Oxide (1 mark)
• deforestation has resulted in less carbon dioxide being absorbed (1 mark) and
  the burning rapidly releases more C02 (1 mark)
• methane has been released from landfill sites as waste decomposes (1 mark)
  and when drilling for natural gas (1 mark)
• in padi fields, methane is produced by microbes underwater as rice plants decay
  (1 mark) Rice production is increasing to meet the demand in rapidly growing
  countries (1 mark)
• the increasing demand for beef has resulted in more methane (1 mark) being
  created by belching cattle and from animal dung (1 mark)
• methane is more than 20 times as effective in trapping heat than CO2; (1 mark)
  it accounts for 20% of the enhanced greenhouse effect; and it remains in the
  atmosphere for 11-12 years (1 mark)
• the increased production of fertilisers also adds to the amount of Nitrous Oxide
  in the atmosphere (1 mark)
• nitrous oxide is 200-300 times more effective in trapping heat than Carbon
  Dioxide (1 mark)
• refrigerators which are not disposed of correctly release CFCs (1 mark) when
  the foam insulation inside them is shredded. (1 mark)

Question 15

(b) Discuss a range of possible impacts of climate change. You should support your
answer with specific examples. (12)

Answer 15

• sea level rises caused by thermal expansion of the oceans (1 mark) and also by
  the melting of glaciers and land-based ice caps (1 mark)
• low-lying coastal areas will suffer flooding, (1 mark) e.g., Bangladesh
  (1 E mark) leading to large-scale displacement of people (1 mark) and loss of
  land for farming and destruction of property (1 mark)
• climate change refugees moving to higher ground or to other countries (1 mark)
  from areas such as Tuvalu or the Maldives (1 E mark) will exert more pressure
  on resources such as housing, water and power supplies in the receiving area
  (1 mark)
• there will be more extreme and more variable weather such as flooding and
  droughts, (1 mark) and more frequent and intense hurricanes due to increased
  sea temperatures (1 mark)
• there will be an increase in precipitation, particularly in the winter in northern
  countries (1 mark) increase in extent of tropical/vector borne diseases, as
  warmer areas expand (1 mark)
• possibly up to 40 million more people in Africa being exposed to risk of
  contracting malaria (1 mark)
• predicted extinction of some land species, due to habitat loss (1 mark)
• an increase in sea temperature leads to coral reefs bleaching. (1 mark) coral
  expels the algae causing it to turn white (1 mark)
• changes to ocean current circulation may mean the thermohaline circulation
  starts to lose impact on north–western Europe, resulting in considerably colder
  winters (2 marks)
• a more frequent El Niño/La Niña (1 mark) leads to changes in the monsoon
  (1 mark)
• a prolonged dry season can lead to forest fires, (1 mark) e.g. Australian Bush
  fires. (1 E mark)

Question 16

Comment on the effectiveness of oil, or any other non-renewable source of
energy you have studied, in meeting the energy demands of a country (12)

Answer 16

Possible answers for all fossil fuels might include:
* non-renewable energy provides instant power, as required (1 mark)
meeting demand at peak times, such as early evening (1 mark)
* fossil fuels are finite and once used, cannot be replaced. (1 mark)
For oil answers may include:
* one of the most abundant energy sources (1 mark)
* no new technology needed to use it, so relatively inexpensive (1 mark)
* liquid form makes it easy to transport and use (1 mark)
* most countries now have to limit their production of CO2 to meet climate
change commitments (1 mark) e.g., the Paris Agreement (1 EG mark)
of the three major fossil fuels (oil, gas and coal), oil reserves are the lowest
(1 mark), estimated at only 50 years left (1 mark)
* extracting crude oil can potentially produce spills (1 mark), which can result in
severe environmental damage (1 mark), e.g. explosion of BP Deepwater Horizon
Gulf of Mexico 2010 (1 EG mark)
* increased costs in exploring and extracting remaining oil reserves e.g., (1 mark)
will result in higher domestic energy bills. (1 mark)
For nuclear energy answers may include:
* although uranium is a finite resource, nuclear power can supply energy for
hundreds or thousands of years (1 mark)
* a small amount of radioactive material can produce considerable levels of
energy (1 mark) e.g. a lump of uranium can produce 2 million times more
energy than from a comparable lump of coal (1 mark)
* nuclear power plants can be very reliable (1 mark), and can run without any
interruption for up to 2 years (1 mark), not being affected by changing weather
conditions, unlike wind power e.g. (1 mark)
* does not give off atmospheric pollutants (1 mark)
* can be highly toxic, with devastating and long-lasting consequences if there is a
leak (1 mark), such as Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1986 (1 EG mark)
* storing of nuclear waste is extremely expensive (1 mark)
* security concerns, such as terrorist threat. (1 mark)

Question 17

Explain the formation of an arête. (10)

Answer 17

Glacier formation includes:
* snow accumulates in north facing hollows (1 mark) when more snow falls in
winter than melts in the summer (1 mark)
* north/north-east facing slopes are more shaded so snow lies longer (1 mark)
with accumulated snow compressed into névé/glacial ice. (1 mark)

Processes include:
* plucking when ice freezes on to bedrock pulling loose rocks away from the
backwall (2 P marks)
* abrasion when the angular rock embedded in the ice grinds the hollow as the
glacier moves (2 P marks)
* frost shattering/freeze thaw weathering when water in cracks in the rock
freezes, expands and contracts weakening the rock until fragments break off.
(2 P marks)

Arête:
* glacier moves downhill due to gravity/weight (1 mark)
* rotational sliding over deepens the hollow (1 mark)
* an arête is formed when two corries erode back towards each other (1 mark)
* frost shattering can make the ridge more pronounced (1 mark), and can cause
scree slopes to develop (1 mark)
* an example of an arête is Striding Edge. (1 E mark)

Question 18

Describe the hydrological cycle within a drainage basin. (8)

Answer 18

• the main input is precipitation through e.g. rain and snow (1 mark)
• water vapour can be evaporated due to heat from the sun (1 mark)
• when water vapour is lost to the atmosphere from vegetation it is called
  transpiration (1 mark)
• advection moves clouds/water vapour inland (1 mark)
• water vapour in the atmosphere can condense into water moisture (1 mark)
• this will form clouds which when big enough produce precipitation (1 mark)
• rainwater can be intercepted by vegetation slowing down the movement of
  water (1 mark)
• it may also be stored on the surface in different volumes from puddles to lakes
  (1 mark)
• water may move over the surface or the land as overland flow/sheet wash
  (1 mark),
• or flow into the soil in a process called infiltration (1 mark)
• water can move downhill through the soil which is called throughflow (1 mark)
• water may then percolate into the rocks below the soil (1 mark)
• it can then flow through the rocks as groundwater flow (1 mark)
• or be stored in the rocks as groundwater storage (the water table). (1 mark)

Question 19

Explain the conditions and processes which lead to the formation of a gley soil. (8)

Answer 19

• limited vegetation produces a thin acidic organic layer/mor humus (1 mark) low
  temperatures cause a slow rate of decomposition (1 mark)
• heavy precipitation/snow melt causes waterlogging. (1 mark) Found on flat
  surfaces as relief can cause drainage problems. (1 mark) Impermeable clays can
  impede drainage (1 mark)
• waterlogged soil creates anaerobic conditions (1 mark), meaning iron
  compounds are changed from red brown to blue (1 mark), due to oxygen being
  extracted by microorganisms (1 mark)
• cold temperatures/waterlogged conditions mean few organisms can
  survive (1 mark)
• limited biota reduces mixing causing clearly defined layers (1 mark)
• burrowing animals/soil drying out in summer leave oxygen pockets (1 mark) this
  allows re-oxygenation of the iron (1 mark) in the soil causing a red mottling
  effect (1 mark)
• shallow roots limit the recycling of minerals. (1 mark)
• Freeze-thaw takes place causing vertical mixing (1 mark) causing large chunks
  of angular rock to be brought up to the A and B horizons. (1 mark)

Question 20

Describe the origin and characteristics of the tropical maritime and tropical
continental air masses. (6)

Answer 20

Maritime tropical (mT):
* origin ― Atlantic Ocean/Gulf of Guinea (1 mark)
* weather characteristics ― warm/hot, (1 mark) unstable air (1 mark) with high
humidity, (1 mark) high precipitation. (1 mark)
Continental tropical (cT):
* origin ― Sahara Desert (1 mark)
* weather characteristics ― hotter/very hot, (1 mark) low precipitation,
(1 mark), stable air (1 mark) with low humidity. (1 mark) Poor visibility caused
by dust carried from the desert. (1 mark)

Question 21

Explain why it may be difficult to gather accurate population data in developing countries.
You may wish to refer to named examples in your answer. (12)

Answer 21

Problems of gathering population data:
* countries with many official languages have to translate their census forms
(1 mark) and employ enumerators who can speak multiple languages (1 mark)
* many people can’t read and write and therefore are unable to complete the
forms (1 mark) or might make mistakes unintentionally leading to inaccuracy
(1 mark)
* the poor infrastructure and difficult terrain (1 mark), e.g. in the Amazon
Rainforest (1 E mark), may make it difficult for enumerators to distribute
census forms (1 mark)
* conflict can make it too dangerous for enumerators to enter parts of a country
(1 mark), or for data to quickly become dated (1 mark)
* undertaking a census is a very expensive process. (1 mark) In developing
countries, there may be higher priorities for spending, including housing
(1 mark)
* rapid rural to urban migration, can make it difficult to gather accurate
population data (1 mark)
* many people in developing countries may be living in informal housing, so have
no official address (1 mark) e.g., Dhararvi (1 E mark)
* people who are illegal immigrants are unlikely to complete a census (1 mark)
for fear of deportation, leading to inaccurate data (1 mark)
* nomads/shifting cultivators can be easily missed or counted twice (1 mark)
e.g., the Tuareg/Fulani/Bedouin (1 mark)
* ethnic tensions and internal political rivalries may lead to inaccuracies
(1 mark), e.g., northern Nigeria (1 E mark) was reported to have inflated its
population figures to secure increased political representation.
(1 mark)

Question 22

Referring to a migration flow you have studied, explain the reasons for this migration.

Answer 22

Push factors:
* not enough jobs with very few opportunities. (1 mark) E.g., until 2019 the
unemployment rate in Poland was high (1 mark)
* low paying jobs resulting in a low standard of living (1 mark)
* state benefits are very low compared to Scotland and the UK (1 mark)
* due to increased mechanisation/privatisation of farms rural unemployment has
risen. (1 mark)
Pull factors:
* until 2020 unlimited migration within the EU allowed Polish migrants to move
freely (1 mark)
* the exchange rate meant that the sterling conversion into zloty was favourable
(1 mark) and meant that people could send money back to family members in
Poland (1 mark)
* there were plenty of available jobs in parts of the economy in Scotland, such as
in construction (1 mark)
* employers advertised vacancies in Poland for jobs in Scotland (1 mark)
* healthcare in Scotland is free at the point of delivery. (1 mark)

Question 23

Referring to a named developing world city you have studied:
(a) describe strategies used to improve housing in the city and
(b) comment on their effectiveness. (10)

Answer 23

For Rio de Janeiro, strategies may include:
* Favela clearance was initially used by the local government prior to the 2016
Olympic Games (1 mark)
* self-help schemes use the skills of local people (1 mark) e.g., Favela Bairro
(1 E mark). Much of the housing has been upgraded with concrete and bricks.
(1 mark) Many houses have been connected to metered electricity.
(1 mark) Pacification introduced community police forces into some favelas.
(1 mark) Improved refuse collection improves the environment (1 mark)
* site and service schemes are brick homes built by the local government
(1 mark) installing pipes to provide sanitation and water supplies (1 mark)
Residents were given the right to buy after initially renting. (1 mark) Streets
are wider to allow access for emergency services/waste lorries (1 mark)
* roads have been paved and given formal addresses. (1 mark)
Effectiveness may include:
* it was soon realised that slum clearance was not effective and that people
would simply move to another location and begin again (1 mark)
* self-help schemes, are much more effective as it gives residents a sense of
ownership (1 mark) and improves the community spirit through working
together. (1 mark) This is a cheaper alternative to brand new housing areas.
(1 mark) the Favela Bairro project has been successful as the money from rents
has allowed other favelas to be developed. (1 mark) However, it does not help
families without jobs who cannot afford to pay rent. (1 mark) It is only the
smaller favelas (500-2500) which have been a focus for this investment (1 mark)
* Pacification was not totally successful because the police were accused of
violent behaviour. (1 mark)

Question 24

Referring to a named glaciated or coastal area you have studied, describe the conflicts
caused by the various land uses in the area. (12)

Answer 24

For the Lake District, points may include:
* traffic congestion on narrow rural roads (1 mark) leads to high levels of air and
noise pollution (1 mark)
* tourists park on grass verges leading to erosion (1 mark) e.g. Bowness (1 EG
mark)
* tourists wander off footpaths widening them (1 mark) and stone walls can be
damaged by people climbing over them (1 mark)
* litter if eaten by wildlife or livestock can harm or kill (1 mark)
* tourists leave gates open causing farm animals to escape (1 mark)
* dogs off leash can worry sheep leading to miscarriages (1 mark) this will reduce
the farmers income (1 mark)
* speedboats on lakes can erode beaches (1 mark) and oil from engines can harm
aquatic life (1 mark)
* quarrying can produce large quantities of dust (1 mark) e.g. Shap Beck Quarry
(1 eg mark) which can settle on plants stunting their growth (1 mark)
* this can also lead to visual pollution in spectacular landscapes (1 mark)
* tourists buying second homes pushes prices up for locals (1 mark) and can lead
to rural depopulation, (1 mark) which can reduce demand for local services
which may close. (1 mark)

Question 25

Explain the formation of a corrie.
You may wish to use an annotated diagram or diagrams in your answer.

Answer 25

Glacier formation includes
 snow accumulates in north facing hollows (1 mark) when more snow falls in
winter than melts in the summer (1 mark)
 north/north-east facing slopes are more shaded so snow lies longer (1 mark)
with accumulated snow compressed into neve and eventually ice. (1 mark)
Processes include
 plucking (1 mark) when ice freezes on to bedrock, pulling loose rocks away from
the backwall (1 mark)
 abrasion (1 mark) when the angular rock embedded in the ice grinds the hollow
(1 mark)
 frost shattering/freeze thaw weathering(1 mark) when water in cracks in the
rock freezes, expands and contracts weakening the rock until fragments break
off. (1 mark)
Corrie
 Glacier moves downhill due to gravity (1 mark)
 Bergschrund crevasse opens up at the back of the hollow (1 mark)
 this allows meltwater and rock fragments to get to the base of the glacier
increasing erosive power (1 mark)
 the weight of the glacier pushes down causing rotational sliding, (1 mark) which
over deepens the hollow (1 mark)
 friction causes the ice to slow down at the front edge of the corrie, (1 mark)
allowing a rock lip to form which traps rain water (1 mark)
 an example is Brown Cove. (1 mark)

Question 26

(a) Describe the pattern of ocean currents for either the Pacific Ocean or the
Atlantic Ocean and
(b) explain how ocean currents redistribute energy around the globe. (8)

Answer 26

Description of pattern of ocean currents in Atlantic may include
 currents follow loops or gyres, (1 mark) clockwise in the Northern Atlantic
(1 mark)
 warm currents travel from the equator towards the Poles (1 mark) for example
The North Atlantic Drift (1 mark)
 cold currents return cool water from the poles (1 mark) for example The
Labrador. (1 mark)
Explanations may include
 ocean currents are greatly influenced by the prevailing winds (1 mark) with
energy being transferred by friction to the ocean currents (1 mark)
 land masses like North America divert ocean currents (1 mark)
 due to differential heating and/or salinity, (1 mark) density differences occur in
water, (1 mark) resulting in chilled polar water sinking, (1 mark) spreading
towards the Equator and displacing warm water pole wards (1 mark)
 the Coriolis effect deflects currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere.
(1 mark)

Question 27

Explain the main conditions and processes involved in the formation of a podzol soil. (8)

Answer 27

 low temperatures lead to slow decomposition (1 mark)
 coniferous needles and cones produce acidic (mor) humus (1 mark)
 high precipitation leads to leaching (1 mark) which is the downward movement
of the aluminium and iron oxides (1 mark), this leads to formation of an iron pan
between the A/B horizons (1 mark)
 this iron pan may impede drainage causing water logging (1 mark)
 eluviation leaves an ash grey A horizon (1 mark)
 illuviation leads to a reddish brown B horizon (1 mark)
 limited soil biota leads to well defined horizons (1 mark)
 found on steep slopes, this further encourages leaching (1 mark)
 shallow roots mean limited absorption of deep leached minerals (1 mark)
 shallow roots also mean limited nutrient recycling. (1 mark)

Question 28

Discuss different methods used by countries to collect population data.

Answer 28

 census is a survey carried out every 10 years (1 mark)
 each householder is asked to complete a detailed questionnaire about the
number of people living in their home (1 mark)
 householders answer other questions on their social, economic and cultural
background (1 mark)
 civil registration of births, deaths (1 mark) provides an up-to-date count
between censuses (1 mark)
 Scottish Household Survey is a continuous survey(1 mark) based on a random
sample of the population (1 marks) which is cheaper than carrying out a full
census (1 mark)
 governments also collect data on migration, for example visa applications
(1 mark) and NHS records provide health data. (1 mark)

Question 29

Explain the strategies used to manage housing problems in a developed world city you
have studied. (8)

Answer 29

 new tenement style housing has been built to create a community spirit (1 mark)
 high rise flats demolished due to damp antisocial conditions (1 mark)
 all the houses were architecturally designed with some of the houses
representing the area’s heritage (1 mark) which attracted people with a higher
income to move to the area increasing the social and economic mix (1 mark)
 public art has been used on the housing to help improve the attractiveness of
the area (1 mark)
 a new leisure centre was built to improve life expectancy in the area (1 mark)
 the Legacy Hub (1 mark) is a new and improved community centre to meet the
demands of the community (1 mark) it includes every day services such as
dentist and a café (1 mark)
 housing associations receive government grants to build more affordable housing
(1 mark)
 new energy efficient homes built (or refurbished) to lower energy bills (1 mark)
for example Athletes village in Dalmarnock. (1 mark)

Question 30

For a developing world city you have studied, discuss the management strategies used to
reduce traffic issues. (7)

Answer 30

 the Mumbai Urban Traffic Project (1 mark) relays live images from traffic
junctions to police headquarters (1 mark) allowing for real time adjustments of
traffic signals (1 mark) which are synchronised to help commuters catch green
lights to increase traffic flow (1 mark)
 the cameras also pick up broken down vehicles and accidents allowing them to
be dealt with quickly (1 mark)
 the railways have been improved by adding new tracks and stations (1 mark)
 500 new eco buses have been purchased to reduce pollution (1 mark)
 a monorail has been built to provide an affordable alternative for commuters
(1 mark)
 the Mumbai Metro Rail Corporation (1 mark) the agency who manage the metro
line have appointed traffic marshals to help commuters (1 mark)
 the Bandra-Worli (1 mark) sea link bridge reduces pressure on roads in to the
city. (1 mark)

Question 31

Discuss the negative socio-economic and environmental consequences of a
named river management project that you have studied.

Answer 31

For example the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
 the displacement of 20,000 people from the site of the dam (1 mark) resulting
in cost of resettlement to other areas (1 mark)
 those forced to relocate were mainly farmers with limited education, who
found it difficult to find jobs (1 mark), resulting in less income and a poorer
quality of life (1 mark)
 the project is very expensive, costing about US$ 5 billion (1 mark), this is 15%
of Ethiopia’s GDP/60% of the total annual budget (1 mark), which critics claim
could have been better spent on health or education (1 mark)
 HEP is only possible during the three month wet season (1 mark)
 lower amounts of water reaching Egypt’s Aswan Dam has resulted in 20% less
electricity being produced there (1 mark)
 Reduced flow from the Blue Nile into downstream countries such as Egypt of up
to 25% (1 mark) and resulting loss of farmland through lack of irrigation (1 mark)
 the reservoir flooded Ethiopian forest, with loss of wildlife (1 mark)
 High temperatures mean water will be evaporated each year from the reservoir
(1 mark)
 the reservoir will silt up and becoming less efficient over time (1 mark)
 less silt in the Blue Nile downstream (1 mark) which is used as a fertiliser,
means farmers need to buy expensive artificial fertiliser (1 mark); with
increased threat of water pollution and danger to aquatic life (1 mark)
 Sudan’s brick industry relies on the river silt as a raw material (1 mark)
 the dam’s pressure on the faulted and cracked rocks in this part of the East
African Rift Valley could trigger earthquakes (1 mark), causing a collapse and
loss of lives and property downstream. (1 mark)

Question 32

(a) Explain the physical factors that contribute to global climate change.

Answer 32

Physical Causes
 Milankovitch’s theory: changes in the earth’s orbit/tilt (1 mark) alter the
amount of energy reaching the Earth (1 mark)
 every 41,000 years, there is a change in the tilt of the Earth’s axis. (1 mark) A
greater tilt means more sunlight in polar regions (1 mark) and over a
97,000-year cycle, the Earth’s orbit stretches (1 mark)
 global temperatures can be raised by peaks of sunspot activity, (1 mark) which
follow an 11-year pattern (1 mark)
 after volcanic eruptions, large amounts of dust and droplets of sulphur (1 mark)
may reflect the sun’s rays lowering temperature (1 mark)
 retreating ice caps release additional fresh water (1 mark) leading to changes in
oceanic circulation. (1 mark) This also reduces the albedo effect (1 mark) as
reflection has decreased as more land is exposed. (1 mark) Methane being
released from melting permafrost. (1 mark).

Question 33

(b) Explain possible strategies for managing climate change. (12)

Answer 33

Local
 individuals can reduce, reuse and recycle products so that less refuse is sent to
landfill sites. (1 mark) This will reduce the amount of methane entering the
atmosphere (1 mark)
 to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide generated by the burning of fossil fuels,
(1 mark) households could reduce energy consumption by insulating their homes
or switching lights off, etc (1 mark)
 people could also be encouraged to use public transport, walk or cycle, (1 mark)
or use hybrid or electric cars to cut down on fossil fuel consumption (1 mark)
 disposal of older fridges should be managed carefully to ensure CFC gases don’t
escape. (1 mark) New cooling units no longer emit CFC’s. (1 mark)

National
 Government Policies such as ‘Helping Households to cut their Energy Bills’
(1 E mark) encourages the use of smart meters improving energy efficiency
(1 mark)
 increasing the use of low carbon technologies such as windfarms (1 mark) — the
UK Government is committed to creating 15% of energy by renewable source.
(1 mark)

Interational
 the Paris Agreement (1 E mark) outlined agreements between leaders of
developed and developing countries to limit climate change to below a 2oC rise
(1 mark)
 the European Union has committed to reducing carbon emissions by 20% by 2020.
(1 mark) The EU will reward developing countries financially (1 mark)
 preparing for extreme weather events such as flooding (1 mark) defences could
be built to hold back flood water. (1 mark) for example The Thames Flood
Barrier (1 EG mark)

Question 34

suggest reasons for the trends in energy consumption in developed
countries.

Answer 34

The periods of increasing energy consumption may be due to
 increased vehicle ownership due to 2 or more car household (1 mark) therefore
increased demand for petrol (1 mark)
 increased ownership of electronic devices such as computers (1 mark) due to
changing technology and affordability (1 mark)
 increased standard of living and/or more single occupancy households (1 mark)
leading to more houses with central heating systems. (1 mark)
For developed countries, the rate of increase in energy consumption is projected to
slow down due to a number of reasons, including
 improved energy efficiency in residential sector (1 mark) for example energy-
saving fridges and LED lighting (1 mark)
 improved insulation of housing such as cavity wall insulation (1 mark) cuts down
on heat loss causing less heating to be required (1 mark)
 growth of more affordable, fuel efficient ‘greener’ hybrid cars (1 mark)
 Government initiatives such as ‘Cycle to Work’ schemes (1 mark) encourage
people to leave their cars at home by subsidising the cost of cycle purchase.
(1 mark)

Question 35

Comment on the effectiveness of wind power, or any other renewable source of
energy you have studied, in meeting the energy demands of a country. (10)

Answer 35

 infinite energy resources/sources of power that are sustainable (1 mark)
 independent production of energy reducing the need for reliance on imports of
fuel. (1 mark)
For wind power, other possible answers could include
 in countries with a windy climate and large areas of exposed upland (1 mark) for
example The Eaglesham Moor (1 mark)
 winds in Scotland can be strong enough to power the equivalent of all electricity
needs for 1 day (1 mark)
 where surplus is generated it can be sold for profit (1 mark)
 wind energy may reduce energy bills (1 mark)
 as power from onshore energy is now cheaper than electricity produced from any
other source in the UK (1 mark)
 wind power can be irregular and intermittent (1 mark)
 during high pressure, for example, there can be periods of no winds or very low
speeds (1 mark) leaving turbines motionless, producing no or very little power
(1 mark). This may coincide with very cold periods in winter when demand is
higher (1 mark)
 currently wind energy cannot be stored (1 mark)
 wind farms are usually found in rural locations far from areas of high demand.
(1 mark)

Question 36

‘A drainage basin is an open system with four elements – inputs, storage, transfers and outputs.’
Discuss the movement of water within a drainage basin.

Answer 36

 input — precipitation mainly in the form of rainfall and snow, with the
amount and duration having an impact on the level of water in the
system (1 mark)
 storage — on the surface in lakes and rivers and interception by leaves
and roots of vegetation (1 mark), with water also seeping into the
ground, stored as soil moisture in the upper layers or deeper down in
rock stores such as the water table (1 mark)
 transfers — this includes the movement of clouds bearing moisture by
the process of advection (1 mark) and surface run-off as sheet wash or
rivers/tributaries, throughfall and/or stemflow, is responsible for the
transferal of precipitation from the canopy to the soil (1 mark),
infiltration and/or percolation move water through the
soil/rock (1 mark). Throughflow is the movement of water through the
upper soil layers towards the river, with the much slower groundwater
flow taking longer to enter the river (1 mark)
 output — evaporation, transpiration from vegetation and surface run-off
from rivers into seas and oceans (1 mark).

Question 37

Explain the main conditions and processes involved in the formation of a brown earth soil. (4)

Answer 37

 natural vegetation — deciduous forest vegetation provides deep leaf
litter, which is broken down rapidly in mild/warm climate (1 mark)
 trees have long roots which penetrate deep into the soil, accessing
nutrients from lower layers which are recycled to leaves (1 mark)
 soil organisms — they ensure the mixing of the soil, aerating it and
preventing the formation of distinct layers within the soil (1 mark)
 climate — precipitation slightly exceeds evaporation, giving downward
leaching of the most soluble minerals and the possibility of an iron pan
forming, impeding drainage (1 mark)
 aspect — south-facing slopes in northern hemisphere with a greater
amount of sunshine and higher temperatures increase the rate
decomposition resulting in humus layer (1 mark)
 rock type — determines the rate of weathering, with hard rocks such as
schist taking longer to weather, producing thinner soils. Softer rocks,
such as shale, weather more quickly (1 mark)
 relief — tend to be found on gentler slopes leading to lower rates of
erosions so thicker soils (1 mark).

Question 38

Evaluate the effectiveness of strategies used to improve housing in Kibera or any other developing world city you have studied. (5)

Answer 38

Large scale redevelopment:
 the Dharavi Redevelopment Project where local people will be moved to
high rise apartment blocks, however, only those who have been resident
in Dharavi since 2000 will be eligible to move into these
apartments (1 mark)
 other residents will be moved to other parts of the city, which will break
up communities and may result in people being too far from their
work (1 mark)
 the new flats will also however be too small for those who currently
have workshops above their homes (1 mark).
Slum Rehabilitation:
 has planned and managed improvements such as upgrading mains
sewerage to help reduce diseases such as cholera however, within
twelve years, only 15% of Dharavi was redeveloped (1 mark).
Local projects:
 self-help schemes support the efforts of local people to improve their
housing for example by adding an additional floor to buildings thus
reducing overcrowding (1 mark)
 toilets have been added and are shared by two or three families who
help to keep them clean, which has reduced the incidence of water
related diseases (1 mark).

Question 39

Explain why it is difficult to gather accurate population data in developing world countries. (6)

Answer 39

Problems of gathering population data:
 language barriers — countries with many official languages have to
translate their census forms and employ enumerators who can speak
multiple languages (1 mark)
 literacy levels — many people can’t read and write, and therefore are
unable to complete the forms, or might make mistakes (1 mark)
 size of the population — the sheer size of some populations make it very
difficult to conduct a census, eg in China and India (1 mark)
 inaccessibility — the poor infrastructure and difficult terrain, for
example in the Amazon Rainforest, may make it difficult for
enumerators to distribute census forms (1 mark)
 wars/civil wars — conflict can make it too dangerous for enumerators to
enter, or for data to quickly become dated (1 mark)
 cost — undertaking the census is a very expensive process, even for
developed world countries. In developing countries, there may be higher
priorities for spending, including housing, education and health
care (1 mark)
 migration — rapid rural to urban migration, can make it difficult to
gather accurate population data as data will become outdated very
quickly (1 mark)
 many people in developing countries may be living in shanty towns, eg
Dhararvi, or are homeless, so have no official address making it difficult
to count them (1 mark)
 people who are illegal immigrants are unlikely to complete a census for
fear of deportation, leading to inaccurate data (1 mark)
 nomadic people — large numbers of migrants, eg the Tuareg or shifting
cultivators in the Amazon can easily be missed or counted
twice (1 mark)
 ethnic tensions and internal political rivalries may lead to inaccuracies,
eg northern Nigeria was reported to have inflated its population figures
to secure increased political representation (

Question 40

Discuss a range of possible impacts of global climate change.

Answer 40

 sea level rises, caused by an expansion of the sea as it becomes warmer
and also by the melting of glaciers and ice caps in Greenland,
Antarctica, etc (1 mark)
 low-lying coastal areas, eg Bangladesh, affected with large-scale
displacement of people and loss of land for farming and destruction of
property (1 mark)
 more extreme and more variable weather, including floods, droughts,
hurricanes and tornadoes becoming more frequent and intense (1 mark)
 globally, an increase in precipitation, particularly in the winter in
northern countries such as Scotland, but some areas like the USA Great
Plains may experience drier conditions (1 mark)
 increase in extent of tropical/vector borne diseases, eg yellow fever, as
warmer areas expand, possibly up to 40 million more in Africa being
exposed to risk of contracting malaria (1 mark)
 longer growing seasons in many areas in northern Europe for example,
increasing food production and range of crops being grown (1 mark)
 habitat loss has largest impact on indigenous animals/plants, and in
areas where migration to new habitats is more difficult, leading to
estimates of 10% extinction rates for land species (1 mark)
 increased sea temperatures have led to 80% coral bleaching. Extended
periods of bleaching can kill the coral with knock on effects for other
marine life (1 mark)
 changes to ocean current circulation, eg in the Atlantic the thermohaline
circulation starts to lose impact on north-western Europe, resulting in
considerably colder winters (1 mark)
 changes in atmospheric patterns linking to changes in the monsoon
caused by El Niño and La Niña (1 mark)
 increased risk of forest fires, for example in Australia and California due
to change in surface temperatures and changes in rainfall
patterns (1 mark).

Question 41

Explain possible strategies for managing climate change.

Answer 41

 individuals can reduce, reuse and recycle products so that less refuse is
sent to landfill sites. This will reduce the amount of methane entering
the atmosphere (1 mark)
 to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide generated by the burning of fossil
fuels, households could reduce energy consumption by insulating their
homes or switching lights off (1 mark)
 people could also be encouraged to use public transport, walk or cycle,
or use hybrid or electric cars to cut down on fossil fuel
consumption (1 mark)
 fridge disposal should be managed carefully to ensure CFC gases don’t
escape. New cooling units no longer emit CFCs (1 mark)
 Government Policies such as ‘Helping Households to cut their Energy Bills’
encourages the use of ‘Smart Meters’ improving energy efficiency by
showing energy costs in pounds and pence (1 mark)
 increasing the use of low carbon technologies such as windfarms — the UK
Government is committed to creating 15% of energy by renewable sources
by 2020 (1 mark)
 UK government is committed to banning the sale of new petrol/diesel
cars by 2040 to reduce emissions (1 mark)
 the Paris agreement outlined agreements between leaders of developed
and developing countries to limit climate change below a 2⁰C
rise (1 mark)
 the impact of climate change could also be managed by preparing for
extreme weather events, for example, flood defences could be built to
hold back flood water, or flood plains and natural wetlands could be used
to store flood water (1 mark).