Part II

Question 1

Triangulation

Answer 1

When two or more methods are used to check or clarify qualitative research findings

Question 2

Sampling method that is LEAST likely to produce a representative sample

Answer 2

Snowball sampling

Question 3

Coding

Answer 3

The process of marking segments of data with symbols, descriptive words, or category names

Question 4

Phenomenology has its disciplinary origins in:

Answer 4

Philosophy

Question 5

Assumptions to be met when Pearson product moment correlation (r) is used

Answer 5

Data should be interval or ratio and Normally distributed and the relationship (correlation) should be linear

Question 6

What is meant by “potential confounders”?

Answer 6

Factors/variables which are not the focus of the study but can confound (affect) the findings.

Question 7

What is a “confidence interval” (CI)?

Answer 7

Range of values within which the mean lies. Level of confidence as a percentage (95%) that the true mean is between the upper and lower values given

Question 8

What is meant by “covert” observation?

Answer 8

Researcher observes people in whom s/he is interested, without informing them that they are being observed

Question 9

What ethical concerns do covert observational studies raise?

Answer 9

People being observed cannot consent to the research. The researcher may have to lie about who they are/what they are doing, which can put them in a difficult position. Full anonymity is not possible, although confidentiality can be maintained, but this is completely in the control of the researcher. Particular issues of anonymity arise for people not directly involved in the study (e.g. passers-by)

Question 10

Distinguish between structured, semi-structured and unstructured interviews

Answer 10

Structured: follow standard script, each interviewee is asked the same questions
Semi-structured: outline interview script/schedule followed, core questions asked of each interviewee, but individual responses pursued as felt appropriate
Unstructured: no script, close to a conversation, the interviewee is free to talk about whatever is deemed relevant

Question 11

What is The Cochrane Library?

Answer 11

A library maintained by the Cochrane collaboration, containing all systematic reviews conducted according to Cochrane principles

Question 12

What are randomised controlled trials?

Answer 12

Trial = experimental study comparing one or more interventions with none (or current best practice). Participants randomly allocated to group. One control (non-intervention) group plus one or more experimental group or groups

Question 13

What is meant by “loss to follow-up”?

Answer 13

Participants were not available for later stages of the study, e.g. to explore long-term effects

Question 14

Why did the review exclude studies in which more than 15% of participants were lost to follow-up?

Answer 14

If participants are lost to follow-up, impossible to measure long-term effects/outcomes. Exclusion criterion set at 15% lost to follow-up to enable meaningful long-term comparisons

Question 15

Why did the two authors independently assess the quality of the trials and extract data?

Answer 15

To ensure that criteria were applied consistently/in a non-idiosyncratic way

Question 16

What is “heterogeneity”?

Answer 16

Variability, difference between studies, here in relation to the analyses conducted

Question 17

Distinguish between methodology and method

Answer 17

Methodology: general approach to conducting a research study, Method: specific technique, usually for data collection (sometimes also used in relation to data analysis)

Question 18

Give a qualitative example of method

Answer 18

interviews, observation, focus groups

Question 19

Give a qualitative example of methodology

Answer 19

IPA, grounded theory, discourse analysis, conversation analysis, visual methodology, ethnography

Question 20

Why would a qualitative researcher choose to use interviews rather than focus groups?

Answer 20

Seeking to obtain in-depth information. Interested in individual perspectives, rather than outcomes of group discussion. Exploring highly sensitive or personal topics/issues (1 mark). Exploring topics/issues where social acceptability is likely to shape responses. Concerns re anonymity/confidentiality

Question 21

What is meant by “saturation” in qualitative research?

Answer 21

Data saturation occurs when researchers decide that they are no longer hearing or seeing new information in their data. Qualitative researchers analyse the data they collect while the study is continuing. When researchers decide that no new data are emerging since data from new research participants are repeating themes/topics/concepts identified in responses from previous participants, and therefore future participants are unlikely to say anything which has not already been identified. researchers then stop recruiting/interviewing new participants, because further recruitment will not produce anything new

Question 22

Which approach to qualitative research generally uses “bracketing,” and

Answer 22

Bracketing is generally used in IPA

Question 23

What is meant by “bracketing”?

Answer 23

It is a process whereby qualitative researcher/s consciously/actively seek to identify/become aware of their own prejudgements and prior knowledge. Aim: researchers are seeking to suspend the influence of their prior knowledge and preconceptions, the researcher aims to analyse participants’ accounts with increased awareness of what the researcher brings to the analysis

Question 24

Why do some qualitative researchers recommend bracketing?

Answer 24

Discusses:
awareness of prejudgements may help researchers to address the subject matter on its own terms.
bracketing assists researchers to be mindful of their own presence and influence in the whole research process
researchers aim to increase their awareness of how participants’ accounts might challenge existing theory/expectations.

Question 25

Why is it difficult to infer causes from correlations?

Answer 25

Correlations do not indicate the direction of causality (i.e. which variable is affecting which) (or any equivalent explanation). The relationship could be the result of a third variable, correlating with the 2 variables shown

Question 26

Explain the utility of a Cohort study

Answer 26

Follows group over time, allows calculation of incidence of disease for example in epidemiology, also enables examination of multiple outcomes

Question 27

Define what is meant by the 95% confidence interval

Answer 27

Confidence interval expressed with an upper and lower range that is the (probability) estimate of population or true parameter based on samples under scrutiny. 95% represents range that is significant to p <0.05. CI is affected by sample size, generally larger the sample size, the smaller the CI.
Using the same sampling method to select different samples and computed an interval estimate for each sample, we would expect the true population parameter to fall within the interval estimates 95% of the time.

Question 28

What is transferability in the context of qualitative research, and how can it be enhanced?

Answer 28

Transferability refers to the degree to which the results of qualitative research can be generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings. From a qualitative perspective transferability is primarily the responsibility of the one doing the generalizing. The qualitative researcher can enhance transferability by doing a thorough job of describing the research context and the assumptions that were central to the research. The person who wishes to “transfer” the results to a different context is then responsible for making the judgment of how sensible the transfer is.

Question 29

What is mixed method research?

Answer 29

Research in which the researcher uses both qualitative methods and quantitative methods to answer the research question(s).

Question 30

What does it mean if a result is significant at the .05 level?

Answer 30

Means that the probability of that result or a more extreme result occurring under the Null Hypothesis is < .05

Question 31

The minimum sample size for a qualitative study is:

Answer 31

It depends on the research question and the needs of the study

Question 32

A longitudinal/cohort study would be an appropriate design to use when:

Answer 32

We want to identify the possible causes of an illness in a population

Question 33

A good research question for a randomised controlled trial will include the following elements:

Answer 33

Specification of the population of interest.

Question 34

The group that does not receive the experimental treatment condition is called the:

Answer 34

Control group

Question 35

In a randomised controlled trial, when neither the researcher nor the participant is aware of which group the participant is in, this is known as:

Answer 35

Double blinding

Question 36

A systematic review is:

Answer 36

Concerned to identify and eliminate bias

Question 37

The most appropriate research design to test the effectiveness of an intervention would be:

Answer 37

A randomised controlled trial

Question 38

When interpreting a correlation coefficient expressing the relationship between two variables, it is very important to avoid:

Answer 38

Jumping to conclusion of causality

Question 39

The mean, median and mode are all examples of:

Answer 39

Measures of central tendency

Question 40

The standard deviation is:

Answer 40

a) The square root of the variance
b) A measure of variability
c) An approximate indicator of how numbers vary from the mean

Question 41

If the values for mean, mode and median are close together, this suggests:

Answer 41

Normal distribution

Question 42

Which of the following would a researcher manipulate in an experimental study?

Answer 42

Independent variable

Question 43

A Type II error:

Answer 43

Occurs when the null hypothesis is not rejected when it is false

Question 44

A type I error:

Answer 44

Occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when it is true

Question 45

What is an outlier?

Answer 45

An extreme variable at either end of a distribution

Question 46

A leading question is:

Answer 46

A question which encourages participants to give a particular answer

Question 47

Psychometric measures…

Answer 47

Contain multiple items to measure one construct

Question 48

Secondary data analysis

Answer 48

The re-analysis of existing survey data collected by another researcher or organisation for the analyst’s own purposes

Question 49

Nonparametric tests can be used for interval data when ?

Answer 49

There is a skewed distribution

Question 50

“Snowballing” means:

Answer 50

asking existing research participants to approach friends or acquaintances who they think might be interested in taking part