part i (1-7)

Question 1

Definition of science

Answer 1

A systematic enterprise that builds and organizes information in the form of TESTABLE EXPLANATIONS and predictions about the universe

Question 2

Definition of geology

Answer 2

The scientific study of the earth’s structure, history, and origin

Question 3

Give examples of how science can be useful

Answer 3

Prevent harmful false explanations (“bad blood”, phrenology), has useful applications (phones, modern medicine)

Question 4

Distinguish between “basic” and “applied” science, and how the former can lead to the ladder

Answer 4

“Basic” science is the fundamental understanding of natural phenomenon

“Applied” science applies existing information to develop practical applications

e.g. theory of relevance = GPS satellites; radio-wave experiments = wireless communication

Question 5

State different ways in which geology can be useful; give specific examples

Answer 5

1. Mitigate natural hazards (predicting earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides)
2. Mitigate unnatural hazards (groundwater flow, climate change)
3. Extract minerals/resources (iron, oil)
4. Environmental consequences (deforestation, burning fossil fuels, overpopulation)

Question 6

Distinguish between a science (subject), the thing being studied scientifically (result), and the people doing it

Answer 6

Polio; IPV: polio vaccine; Jonas Salk

Artificial Intelligence; Turing test (tests computer’s ability to think like a human); Alan Turing

Question 7

How can science considered morally bad be prevented or limited?

Answer 7

Government regulation, self-regulation, control over what science to fund

Question 8

Describe how human flaws can negatively impact the quality of the science that we do

Answer 8

Quality of science may be negatively impacted as scientists can interpret or gather data biasedly, contradicting the entire purpose of scientific method: evidence and data driven

Question 9

List the steps of scientific method

Answer 9

1. Make observation
2. Think of explanations
3. Formulate hypothesis
4. Develop testable predictions
5. Gather data to test predictions
   a. refine, alter, expand, or reject hypothesis
6. Develop general theories

Question 10

Describe how adherence to scientific method ensures evidence-based explanations for phenomena

Answer 10

Since the process in testing and developing theories for certain phenomena is very specific, this allows it so others can replicate this experiment; similar results = accepted hypothesis

Question 11

Factors in a good experiment design

Answer 11

Control group, sufficient sample size, representative sample, replicable

Question 12

Explain how the scientific method is applicable to historical sciences, using Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction as example

Answer 12

1. Discovery of crater
2. Could this be linked to extinction of dinosaurs?
3. Asteroid is the cause
4. Large crater size and fossil findings predicting extinction of dinosaurs
5. Crater = 112 miles long, coincided with dinosaur extinction, boundary clay (debris from asteroid) found
6. A very large asteroid is responsible for the extinction of dinosaurs

The process in which the Alvarez hypothesis was tested to explain the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction follows the scientific method exactly

Question 13

Define data, and distinguish between different types

Answer 13

Individual units of information

Quantitative (numbers only)
Qualitative (descriptive)
Continuous (infinite scale time wise and numerically)
Discrete (only certain numbers are possible)
Categorical (= qualitative)

Question 14

Convert between different units of measure

Answer 14

just remember not to forget any small details

Question 15

Explain how data can be analyzed, visualized, and interpreted

Answer 15

Analyze:
Quantitative (regression analysis, simple linear regression, null hypothesis)
Qualitative (deductive and inductive approach)

Visualize (charts, pie charts, bar graph

Interpreted:
1. Analysis (examine data)
2. Interpret (explain findings in the given context)
3. Present (conclude)

Question 16

Misleading graph/ chart examples

Answer 16

Excessive usage (so unnecessary that it causes confusion)
Biased labeling (misleading or inappropriate word choice)
Improper scaling (creates misleading comparison

Question 17

Explain the difference between compositional and mechanical layering

Answer 17

Compositional: distinguished by chemical composition
Mechanical: determined by physical property

Question 18

List the layers of the earth for both compositional and mechanical layering; briefly describe what distinguishes each layer

Answer 18

Compositional: crust, mantle, core
Mechanical: crust, lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, inner core

Question 19

Define density, and use it to explain convection

Answer 19

Density: the mass of an object/substance
Convection: the process of heat being transferred by movement of a heated fluid which occurs due to density difference

Question 20

State three different types of plate boundaries, and relative movement of the plates at each

Answer 20

Divergent: moving away
Convergent: moving towards
Transform: sliding past each other

Question 21

Outline how a divergent plate evolves over time

Answer 21

(refer to drawing)

Question 22

Draw convergent plate boundaries

Answer 22

(refer to drawings)
1. Oceanic vs oceanic
2. Oceanic vs continental
3. Continental vs continental

Question 23

Calculate amount of time a transition fault takes given slip rate

Answer 23

V=d/t

Question 24

Describe hotspots, and explain how they can be used to determine absolute plate motions

Answer 24

Hotspots: an area of the earth’s mantle from which hot plumes rise upward to crust, forming volcanoes on crust
Explaining absolute plate motions: hotspots don’t move, but plates do; by seeing the formation of new volcanoes or testing the inactive volcanoes, we can see how plates move relative to each other by using hotspots as the center point

Question 25

List different types of evidence used to constrain the compositional and mechanical layering of earth

Answer 25

1. Direct observation of the crust
2. Mantle that tectonics brought up the surface
3. Chrondite meteorites: material from which earth and other planets are composed of (core)
4. High-pressure/temperature experiment: creating hypothesized layers of earth with compressed materials and stimulated pressure between two diamonds
5. Seismic shadow zones (p-waves: goes through solids and liquids of waves from one point of earth the the other; s-waves: goes through solids only!)
6. Earth’s magnetic field (electrical field reinforces magnetic, vice versa; needs movement! iron liquid from core = movement)
7. Earth’s angular momentum: no layers = increase moment of inertia = longer rotations around the sun (longer days)

Question 26

Early evidence for dynamic earth, pre-plate tectonic hypothesis, observations that invalidate these hypotheses

Answer 26

Early evidence = fossils and sea creatures in places far from ocean

Pre-plate tectonic hypothesis:
1. Earth is shrinking; doesn’t explain continents splitting up
2. Earth is expanding: some oceans are being pushed up, or shrinking (pacific)

Question 27

Explain the observation that led to the hypothesis of continental drift, and the predictions of this hypothesis that proved to be correct

Answer 27

Continents’ RIDGES look like they should fit like jigsaw puzzles
Correct predictions:
1. Continents fit along edge of continental drift
2. Continents that were originally joined should have matching rocks
3. AND fossils
4. AND paleoclimate

Question 28

Illustrate why the inclination of compass needle varies with latitude

Answer 28

Earth’s magnetic fields are not parallel (north and south pole are not directly above/beneath each other)
1. North end of compass needle will point downward in the northern hemisphere (positive dip)
2. South end of compass needle will point upwards in the Southern Hemisphere (negative dip)

Question 29

Explain paleomagnetism and how it relates to continental drift

Answer 29

you got this bro