Part 2: Infancy And Childhood

Question 1

Define conception. Describe the genetics at conception?

Answer 1

When male sperm fertilized female’s egg. At this point, the egg blocks all other sperm.

New one-cell entity (fertilized egg) contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 all)…23 from each parent

Question 2

What is the first stage of prenatal development? Explain the significance of the zygote in this stage.

Answer 2

Zygote stage. In the first two weeks, rapid cell division occurs. Less than 50% of all zygotes survive. 10 days after conception, the zygote will attach itself to the uterine wall and the outer part of the zygote becomes the placenta (which filters nutrients)

Question 3

What is the second stage of prenatal development? Explain. What happens at 2 weeks? What happens at 4 weeks? What happens at 8 weeks?

Answer 3

Embryonic stage. Weeks 2-8. Baby is more vulnerable to damage at this stage than any others

2 weeks — zygote become an embryo
4 weeks — embryo has developed a beating heart, brain and intestinal tract
8 weeks — embryo is about an inch lone…has arms and face that are distinct

Question 4

What is the last stage of prenatal development? What happens at 4 months? What happens at 6 months?

Answer 4

Fetal stage. 8 weeks - birth. At weeks 8/9, now called fetus. Baby can hear (and recognize) sounds and respond to light

Around 4 months — fetal movement strong enough to be detected by mother

Around 6 months — eye lids open and fetus has well-developed grasp and taste buds. Stomach and other organs have formed enough to survive outside of mother’s body

Question 5

Define fetus.

Answer 5

By 8-9 weeks, there is something that looks like a human

Question 6

Explain the first trimester. What is the duration?

Answer 6

1-13 weeks. The heart, brain, spinal cord, arms, legs and ears develop

Question 7

Explain the second trimester. What is the duration?

Answer 7

14-27 weeks. The skin develops, heartbeat increases and kicking is present

Question 8

Explain the third/last trimester. What is the duration?

Answer 8

28-40 weeks. Almost all organs are complete. Legs and arms move more often.

Question 9

How can genetic factors influence prenatal development? Give examples.

Answer 9

Faulty genes or chromosomes can cause genetic defects

PKU— inability to breakdown protein
Tay Sachs disease — body cannot breakdown fat which causes substances to build up in and destroy brain and nerve cells until NS shuts down

Question 10

How can environmental factors influence prenatal development? Give examples.

Answer 10

Teratogens

• mother’s illness
• mother’s use of drugs which can lead to the baby being addicted
• fetal alcohol syndrome: condition resulting in mental and growth retardation
• smoking: fewer nutrients received by fetus

Question 11

Define rooting reflex.

Answer 11

Automatic turn of head when cheek is touched. Open mouth and search for a nipple

Question 12

Define sucking reflex.

Answer 12

Suck anything that touches lips

Question 13

Define startle reflex.

Answer 13

Infant flings arms, fans fingers and arches back in response to sudden noise

Question 14

Define Babinski reflex.

Answer 14

Toes fan out when sole of foot is stroked

Question 15

Define maturation and the sequence of motor development.

Answer 15

Biological growth process. Influenced by experiences. Physical

Motor development is universal: roll over, crawl, walk, run
- timing is individualistic

Question 16

Define Moro reflex.

Answer 16

Response to a sudden move, absence or support

Question 17

Define stepping reflex.

Answer 17

Moves feet in walking motion when upright and feet touching flat surfaces

Question 18

Define grasping reflex.

Answer 18

Grasps items tightly when something touches its palms

Question 19

What important role did Jean Piaget play in cognitive development?

Answer 19

He believed that children moved from stage to stage as they matured and were exposed to relevant types of experiences

Question 20

Define schemas.

Answer 20

Mental molds into which we pour our experience

Question 21

Assimilation vs. Accommodation

Answer 21

Assimilation — interpret new information based on existing schema
EX: child will call cat a dog simply because it has four legs and a tail

Accommodation — adapt their existing schema to incorporate new information
EX: knowing difference between dog and cat

Question 22

Explain the sensorimotor stage. What age category falls into this stage?

Answer 22

0-2 years. Experience the world strictly with their 5 senses. At around 9 months, they develop object permanence.

Question 23

Define object permanence.

Answer 23

Develops in the sensorimotor stage. Know that objects and people exist even if they are our of sight

Question 24

Define pre-operational stage. What age falls into this stage?

Answer 24

2-6. Children develop language and symbolic thinking. They are egocentric because they cannot perceive things from another’s POV. They lack concept or conservation (knowledge that quantity can remain the same when shape or other properties change)

Pretend play occurs

Question 25

Define animism.

Answer 25

Occurs in the pre-operational stage. Gives animal qualities to inanimate objects. Putting human characteristics on inanimate object (cartoons)

Question 26

Define concrete operational stage. What age falls into this stage?

Answer 26

6-12. Develop ability to think in a more logical manner but only about concrete events…cannot think hypothetically. In this stage, they master the idea of conservation and no longer are egocentric. They are able to transform mathematical functions (+/-)

Question 27

Define formal operational stage. What age falls into this age?

Answer 27

12+. Characterized by abstract reasoning. They approach problems systematically…ruling out possibilities along the way. This is thought to emerge during the teenage years…yet research has shown that not everyone fully masters this stage (approximately 60% of adults reach this stage)

Question 28

What are some critiques of Piaget’s theory?

Answer 28

—Not all people reach formal operational thought
—The theory may be biased in favor of western culture
—there is no real theory of what occurs after the onset of adolescence
—recent research has indeed shown that cognitive development seems to proceed in the general sequence of stages that Piaget proposed

Question 29

Define scaffolding. Who proposed the idea?

Answer 29

Lev Vygotsky proposed that the appropriate level of instruction lies between a child’s actual mental age and the level of problem solving that the child is able to reach with assistance

He thought that in most settings children should work together with adults to bring each child up from the initial level of master to the most advanced level

Question 30

Define attachment

Answer 30

Positive emotional bond that develops between child and mom/dad

Question 31

Explain Harry Harlow’s research and its results.

Answer 31

Took an infant monkey from its biological mother at birth. He gave the monkey 2 choices: wire “mother” that provided milk and a cloth “mother” that was warm but no milk.

Results: monkey went to cloth mother most of the time but went to wire monkey for nourishment. Showed that attachment was about comfort and the more the caregiver responds. The more secure the attachment.

Question 32

Explain Mary Ainsworth’s research.

Answer 32

AKA Ainsworth strange situation. It was a test to measure levels of attachment in which an adult stranger enters a room as the mother leaves. The mother then returns a short while later with the stranger leaving. It measured how the child would react.

Question 33

Explain Mary Ainsworth’s research results.

Answer 33

Results: found that securely attached children use mom as a “home base”.
—when mother leaves = distress
—when mother returns = go to mother

Insecurely attached children react in different ways:
— Avoidant: do not cry when mom leaves and avoids her when she returns
— Ambivalent: display anxiety when mom is in room and upset when mom leaves. When mother returns, they may go to her while at the same time hitting or kicking her

Attachment style is related to the social environment in which the children are raised

Question 34

Define authoritarian parenting style. How can this affect the child?

Answer 34

Rigid, punitive and demand unquestioning obedience from children (“Do as I say”). They have strict standards and discourage expressions of disagreement. Children tend to be unsociable, unfriendly and withdrawn

Question 35

Define permissive parenting style. How can this affect the child.

Answer 35

Parents give their child relaxed or inconsistent directions and although nice, require little of them

Children tend to be immature, moody, dependent and have low self-control

Question 36

Define authoritative parenting style. How can this affect the child?

Answer 36

Firm, setting limits and goals for their children, yet explain and use reasoning to set those limits — often let children have some role in making decisions/setting goals. They encourage children’s independence

Children tend to be like-able, self-reliant, independent and cooperative

Question 37

Define uninvolved parenting style. How can this affect the child?

Answer 37

Show little to no interest in children, and they are emotionally detached. They view parenting as nothing more than providing food, clothing and shelter for children — in most extreme form, uninvolved parents are guilty of neglect

Children tend to feel unloved and emotionally detached