Part 2 Flashcards
Mention 3 types of muscles.
Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth
What is the functional unit of a muscle fiber?
Sarcomere
What is a motor unit?
Neuron + triggered fibers
Mention the three parts of the functional structure of a sarcomere.
Thick filament (myosin) Thin filament (actin) Tropomyosin - blocks myosin binding site when muscle is at rest.
Describe the action at the Neuromuscular junction.
- Release of Acetylcholine (ACh).
- Activation of ACh receptors (gated channels).
- Generation of muscle action potential (ions flow).
- Breakdown of ACh by Acetylcholinesterase.
Which ion is released from Sarcoplasmic reticulum at the muscle action potential?
Ca2+
What happens during muscle contraction?
- Ca2+ release from Sarcoplasmic reticulum.
- Ca2+ binds to troponin
- Moves tropomyosin off action sites
- Myosin binds and start cycle.
What happens during muscle relaxation?
- ACh breakdown stops muscle action potentials
- Ca2+ ions are transported back into SR - requires ATP!
- Tropomyosin covers actin binding sites.
What can be limiting factors during fatigue?
Ca2+ Creatine phosphate Oxygen Building up of acid Neuronal failure
How is oxygen used after exercise?
Convert lactic acid back to glucose in liver
Resynthesize creatine phosphate and ATP
Replace oxygen removed from myoglobin
What are the components of the bone matrix?
25 % water
25 % collagen fibers
50 % mineral salts (Ca, P, Mg)
What are the cells in bone?
Osteogenic cells - unspecified
Osteoblasts - build
Osteocytes - maintain
Osteoclasts - digest
What are the name of the arrangement of bone in compact bone?
Osteons (Harvesian systems)
In osteons, what is the name of the layers of matrix?
Concentric lamellae
What are the cartilage forming cells in bone?
Chondrocytes
What are the unique skeletal features of the skull?
Sutures: immovable joint between skull bones
Paranasal sinuses: cavities near the nasal region
Fontanels: soft spot in fetal skull
How many vertebrae does a human have?
33
What treatment methods are used after bone fracture?
Standard = conservative
Traction
What are the factors affecting bone growth?
Adequate minerals (Ca, P, Mg)
Vitamins A,C,D
Hormones (hGH, insulin like GF, Thyroid hormone, sex hormones)
Weight bearing activity
Name the feedback loops monitoring osteoclast activity.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) -> osteoclast activity up + decrease loss of Ca2+ in urine Calcitonin -> osteoclast activity down
In which ways can joints be classified?
Structurally; by their anatomy
Functionally; by the degree of movement they permit
What are the three classes of structurally separated joints?
Fibrous joints
Cartilaginous joints
Synovial joints
What are the three classes of fibrous joints?
Suture - in skull
Syndesmosis - between tibia and fibula
Interosseous membrane - between tibia and fibula
What are the two classes of cartilaginous joints?
Synchondrosis
Symphysis
What is bursae?
Sacs made of synovial membranes containing fluid (in synovial joints)
What part of the nervous system is controlled by the free will?
Somatic nervous system.
In what parts is the autonomic nervous system divided into?
sympathetic
parasymphatic
Mention four types of Glial cells.
Astrocytes - maintain chemical environment
Oligodendrocytes - produce and maintain myelin shealth of CNS neurons
Schwann cells - myelin shealth of PNS neurons
Mikroglia - protect CNS from disease
What is grey and white matter?
Grey matter = bodies of nerve cells
White matter = nerve fibers
Which ions are dominating inside/ outside the cell?
Inside: K+ (surplus of negative charges)
Outside: Na+ and Ca2+ (surplus of positive charges)
What is the substance related to Parkinson and Schizofrenia?
Dopamin
What is the substance related to depression?
Serotonin
What is “Long term potentiation”?
When a synaps get stronger
What are the central parts of CNS, and what are their main functions?
Cerebrum
Brain stem
Cerebellum
Medulla spinalis (Spinal cord)
What are the functions of the CNS and which parts are they connected to?
Cortex - thoughts
Limbic system - Emotions, memories
Brain stem - Instincts
Spinal cord - Reflexes
What are the parts of Cerebrum?
Cerebral cortex Basal ganglia Limbic system Diencephalon White matter
What is the name of the four lobes of cerebral cortex?
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
Mention four important areas in the frontal lobe.
Prefrontal cortex
Premotor cortex
Primary motorcortex
Broca’s area
Which cortex is responsible for personality, insight mm?
Prefrontal cortex
What is the Association cortex?
Large areas of cortex with diffuse functions, eg abstract thinking
What is motoric aphasia?
Injury to the left frontal lobe may result in affected motoric language.
Which lobe is connected to sensory aphasia?
Temporal lobe
Which lobe is connected to language, memory, auditary cortex, limbic system mm?
Temporal lobe
What is the functions of the parietal lobe?
Sensory perception
Language
Spatial orientation and perception
Where is the visual cortex located?
Occipital lobe
What is the extra-pyramid system?
part of the motor system causing involuntary actions.
Which substance is found in the pineal gland?
Melatonin
What is the function of the hypothalamus?
Control hemostasis - inner mileu of the body. Thirst, hunger, sleep, sexual behaviour.
Which system is responsible fo emotions, memory and olfaction?
Limbic system
What are the three tracts of the white matter?
Projection tracts (between different levels in CNS) Commisure tracts (between the hemisphere) Association tracts (within a hemisphere)
Hemisphere = hjärnhalva
What is the name of the centre for conciousness, breathing, heart rate, sneezing mm
Formatio reticularis (Reticular formation)
What is the function of cerebellum?
- Involved in coordination of eye-, trunc and head movements using signals from the ear (balance organ).
- Helps to maintain posture and balance.
- Takes part in fine motoric movements of the arms and hands and trained fast and complicated movements.
What is the name of the 4 fluid filled ventricles in the brain?
Lateral ventricle (2)
Third ventricle
Fourth ventricle
What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
Protection against physical injury
Transport of substances
What is hydrocephalus?
Vattenskalle
What is the name of the connective tissue enclosing the brain and spinal cord?
Meniges:
Pia mater - closest to the nervous tissue
Arachnoid mater
Dura mater - periosteum
What is the function of the blood vessels A. carotis interna, A. Vertebralis, A. Basilaris?
Blood to brain.
A. carotis interna - from aorta
A. Vertebralis - from the vessels to the arm
A. Basilaris
What is the number of spinal nerves?
31 pairs
Spinal nerve is divided into _______ root.
ventral and dorsal
Ventral root consists of axons ___ the CNS (__).
Dorsal root consists of axons ___ the CNS (__).
from, efferens
to, afferens
What are the initial stages of fetal development?
Oocyte
Zygote
Morula
Blastocyst
What are the two layers of the embryonic disc?
Hypoblast (primitive endoderm)
Epiblast (primitive ectoderm)
What are the three layers of the three-layered embryo and what do they develop into?
Ectoderm - nervous system & skin
Endoderm - epithelial linings of digestive, respiratory, and urogenital systems.
Mesoderm - all other tissues.
Which layer does the notochord come from?
Mesoderm
What is the name of the specialization of the ectoderm?
Neutralization (Neurolation) form neural groove
What is the name of the connection between the placenta and fetus?
Umbrical cord
Which hormones are dominating during the first 3-4 months of pregnancy?
Progesterone and estrogens
Which hormones are secreted by the chorion (typ fosterhinna)?
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
Human placental lactogen (hPL)
Which hormone causes uterine contractions during labor?
Progesterone
What is the “water” that the fetus swims in?
Amniotic fluid
Which hormones contribute to lactation?
Prolactin
Oxytocin
What is the pyramidal tract?
Cerebral cortex - medulla spinalis - muscles.
Cross midline in brainstem
Who is the boss of the Autonomic nervous system?
Hypothalamus
In which parts are the ANS divided into?
Symphatetic - fight and flight
Parasymphatetic - rest
What are the general senses (Somatosensory)?
Tactile Thermal Pain Proprioception Visceral
What does the a) Meissner corpuscle
b) Pancinian corpuscles sense?
a) Light touch, small receptor fields
b) vibration
Which sense regulate the static and dynamic position of the body?
Proprioceptive sensations. Multiple types of receptors are involved and used together.
Proprioceptors can be Muscle spindles, golgi tendon organs, joint receptors
What is the name of the disorder that gives a decreased sense of smell?
Hyposmia
Which are the three layers of the eyeball?
Fibrous tonic,
vascular tonic (choroid - blood supply)
retina (CN II)
Mention two disorders to the eye.
Presbyopia (less elastic lens)
Astigmatism (Assymetrical cornea)
What is the main component of photopigment in rods?
Rhodopsin
What can cause diffuse axonal injury (DAI)?
Tearing of nerve fibers due to high velocity injuries.
What is aneurysm?
Pathological distension of blood vessel.
Which are the three regions of the skin?
Epidermis
Dermis
Hypodermis (Subcutaneous fat)
Which are the functions of the integumentary system?
Protection Temperature regulation Sensations (exoreceptors for touch and pain) Synthesis of vitamin D Blood reservoir Excretion of waste
What are the most common cell types in Epidermis?
Keratinocytes - produce keratin
Melanocytes - produce melanin
Langerhan’s cells - epidermal macrophages
Merkel cells - touch receptors
Which epidermal cell layer is only present in thick skin?
Clear layer
What are the cell types of dermis?
Fibroblasts
Macrophages
Mast cells
White blood cells
Mention four different types of sweat glands.
Eccrine SG - body temperature
Apocrine SG - emotional sweating
Cerumnious glands - secrete cerumen in ear canal
Mammary glands - secrete milk
What are the three types of skin cancer possible?
Basal cell carcinoma
Squamous cell carcinoma
Melanoma
What are the components of the male reproduction system?
Testes - produce sperm & secrete hormones
System of ducts (epididymis, ductus deferens mm) - transport and storage
Accessory sex glands - secrete semen
Supporting structures (penis) - passageway
Which production is initiated by Gonadotropin-releasing hormone in males?
Lutenizing hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone
What is the function of Lutenizing hormone in males?
Stimulate Leydig cells to secrete testosterone
Which hormones are involved in spermatogenesis?
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Testosterone
What is required to form dihydrotestosterone?
Enzyme
Testosterone
dihydrotestosterone stimulates growth of external genitalia
What is the site of sperm maturation?
Epididymis
What are the stages in the ovarian cycle in females?
- Granulosa cells
- Primary oocyte
- Secondary oocyte
- Ovulation
What does Gonadotropin - releasing hormone control in females? And where is it released?
Ovarian/uterine cycle
In hypothalamus
What is regulated by Follicle - stimulating hormone in females?
follicular growth
secretion of estrogens
What is regulated by Lutenizing hormone in females?
Development of ovarian follicles
Secretion of estrogens
Trigger ovulation
What are the female sex steroids?
Estrogen
Progesterone
What are the male sex steroids?
Testosteron
Dihydrotestosteron
