Part 1 Flashcards
Radars have an important role in the field of meteorology. These devices
send out and receive signals providing valuable information about the location and intensity of precipitation
Advanced Doppler radar technology goes beyond simple detection to
providing high resolution reflectivity and estimated velocity data
Advanced Doppler radar technology goes beyond simple detection to providing high resolution reflectivity and estimated velocity data, which is vital to
short term forecasting and severe weather prediction.
The radar creates an
electromagnetic energy pulse which is focused by an antenna and transmitted through the atmosphere
The radar creates an electromagnetic energy pulse which is focused by an antenna and transmitted through the atmosphere. Objects in the path of this electromagnetic pulse, called
targets, scatter the electromagnetic energy. Some of that energy is scattered back toward the radar.
The receiving antenna (which is normally also
the transmitting antenna) gathers this back-scattered radiation and feeds it to a device called a receiver.
Wave Properties
wavelengths and phase shifts
The wavelength (lamada) of a wave is
the distance from one crest to the next.
The phase of a wave, measured in
degrees, where 360 degrees is one wavelength
The phase of a wave, measured in degrees, where 360 degrees is one wavelength, indicates
the current position of the wave relative to a reference position –>
phase shift
the wavelength did not change from T1 to T2, but the wave’s position relative to the vertical line changed 1/4 wavelength, or 90 degrees
Scattering of a Radar Pulse
by a target back to the receiver
When a pulse encounters a target
return signal
it is scattered in all directions. Of interest is the signal component received back at the radar. This signal is typically much weaker than the original sent from the transmitter
The larger the target, the
stronger the scattered signal.
The more targets there are to scatter the pulse, the
stronger the return will be because the return signals from each target combine to produce a stronger signal
The more targets there are to scatter the pulse, the stronger the return will be because the return signals from each target combine to produce a stronger signal. This means that
many large raindrops will produce a stronger return than a few small raindrops.
The quantity that a radar measures is the
returned power
reflectivity is AKA
reflectivity factor
reflectivity:
The quantity that a radar measures is the returned power which, with knowledge of other radar characteristics, is converted to a quantity
The magnitude of the reflectivity is related to
the number and size of the drops encountered by the electromagnetic pulse
The magnitude of the reflectivity is related to the number and size of the drops encountered by the electromagnetic pulse. For this reason,
high reflectivity generally implies heavy precipitation while low reflectivity implies lighter precipitation
Plots of the radar reflectivity, typically using colors to
depict its magnitude
. Plots of the radar reflectivity, typically using colors to depict its magnitude, show
both the location and intensity of precipitation
Extremely high reflectivities often indicate
hail
The factors which govern the choice of a wavelength to be used in a particular radar include
its sensitivity , which is its ability to detect weak targets at long range,
the radar’s ability to resolve small features,
the types of targets to be studied, and
the effects of the intervening atmosphere on the transmitted energy.
The factors which govern the choice of a wavelength to be used in a particular radar include its sensitivity, which is its ability to detect weak targets at long range, the radar’s ability to resolve small features, the types of targets to be studied, and the effects of the intervening atmosphere on the transmitted energy. Other factors also must be considered such as
the radar’s size, weight and cost
Most weather radars have wavelengths that range between
0.8 centimeters (cm) and 10.0 cm
Generally short wavelengths mean
smaller and less expensive equipment
Short wavelength radars are more effective in detecting
detecting small particles such as cloud droplets and drizzle drops.
Short wavelength radars are more effective in detecting small particles such as cloud droplets and drizzle drops. However, the short wavelength electromagnetic energy is
also partially absorbed by these same particles (a process called attenuation).
the short wavelength electromagnetic energy is also partially absorbed by these same particles (a process called attenuation). This makes it difficult to
accurately measure the intensity of back-scattered energy for more distant targets that lie beyond the range of closer targets.
The main advantage of using longer wavelengths is that
absorption by the intervening particles is drastically reduced. This means that a distant thunderstorm behind a closer thunderstorm will appear on the radar screen with its proper intensity.
Since detecting severe weather is one of the most important missions of operational radars, such as the National Weather Service’s WSR-88D Doppler radars, these radars typically use a
long wavelength
One must account for the curvature of the earth when determining
the altitude of a target
One must account for the curvature of the earth when determining the altitude of a target. Distant targets, which are close to the ground,
cannot be seen by a radar because they will be below the horizon.
The height of a distant target that is above the horizon will be
underestimated if the curvature of the earth is not taken into account. For example, the height of the target on the figure below would be underestimated as “h” rather than the actual height “H”.
called refraction, also affects the path the electromagnetic energy will take as it propagates through the atmosphere. Normally, because
the atmosphere’s density decreases rapidly with height, the radar beam will be deflected downward
refraction, also affects the path the electromagnetic energy will take as it propagates through the atmosphere. Normally, because the atmosphere’s density decreases rapidly with height, the radar beam will be deflected downward, much like
light passing through a glass prism.
………………………………………. the beam can bend down dramatically and even strike the ground.
In extreme cases, where temperature increases with height and dry air overlays warm air, (a condition often found along coastlines)
In extreme cases, where temperature increases with height and dry air overlays warm air, (a condition often found along coastlines), the beam can bend down dramatically and even strike the ground. Meteorologists call this effect
“anamolous propagation”.
Both the curvature of the earth and normal atmospheric refraction must be accounted for when determining the
position of a target.
Clear Air Returns ( )
insects and turbulence
When a radar transmits energy, part of it may be
intercepted by targets on the ground, such as buildings, trees, cars, or other objects.
ground clutter
When a radar transmits energy, part of it may be intercepted by targets on the ground, such as buildings, trees, cars, or other objects. The return signal from these objects is called “ground clutter”.
Ground clutter interferes with
the detection of meteorological targets, such as raindrops, because ground targets are large and typically produce high reflectivity.
sidelobes
Ground clutter can result even if the main radar beam is above ground targets because part of the energy radiated from the antenna is emitted off the beam axis
Back-scattered energy from the sidelobes is
interpreted by the radar processor to come from the main lobe, so ground targets hit by one of the sidelobes appear to a radar user in the same relative position in the main lobe.
Ground clutter is usually the worst within about
20 kilometers of the radar site where the beam is still close to the earth’s surface.
Ground clutter is usually the worst within about 20 kilometers of the radar site where the beam is still close to the earth’s surface. Farther from the site,
the beam is higher due to both its elevation angle and curvature of the earth away from the radar site.
Ground clutter is easily identified with
a Doppler radar because the radial velocity measured by the Doppler radar will approximately be zero since none of the ground targets are moving with respect to the radar
The radial velocity is not exactly zero because
moving targets within the beam, such as birds, bugs, or even raindrops, also contribute to the total power return to the radar
Insects present
large targets to radar and they are always present during the warmer seasons
Insects present large targets to radar and they are always present during the warmer seasons. This actually is beneficial to meteorologists. Doppler radars require
targets to determine the motion of the air.
This actually is beneficial to meteorologists. Doppler radars require targets to determine the motion of the air. Outside of regions where precipitation is falling, there would be
no targets if there were no insects
Outside of regions where precipitation is falling, there would be no targets if there were no insects. Airborne insects turn out to be very good
tracers of air motion since, on average, they blow along with the wind.
The returns from insects allow meteorologists to see
air motions outside the storm circulation which in many cases is important for predicting where new storms are likely to occur.
Turbulence provides another way in which
electromagnetic energy from a radar can be back-scattered
Turbulence provides another way in which electromagnetic energy from a radar can be back-scattered. Turbulence is associated with
variations in density in the atmosphere.
Turbulence is associated with variations in density in the atmosphere. When variations in density occur on a scale of
half the wavelength of the radar, energy is scattered through a process called diffraction
Radar echoes in a clear atmosphere will be more common on days when
the lower atmosphere is unstable, as when there are thermals present, or when the wind increases rapidly with height just above the ground, so that there is mechanical turbulence.
Radar returns are due to
insects, turbulent motions, and ground targets
Radar returns are due to insects, turbulent motions, and ground targets. These echoes, which extend out to about
100 kilometers from the radar, allow the radar operator to see the air motion.
radial velocity field. The distribution of inbound (green) and outbound (yellow) velocities indicate
that the low level winds are out of the south-southeast.
The radar needs 3 pieces of information to determine the location of a target
azimuth angle
elevation angle
distance from radar to target
azimuth angle
the angle of the radar beam with respect to north
elevation angle
the angle of the beam with respect to the ground
Distance is determined by
measuring the time it takes for the pulse to make a round trip from the radar to the target and back using the relation distance = (time) * (velocity).
The velocity is
the speed of light
Since the pulse has to travel to
the target and back, the total distance is 2D
If t is the time it takes, then
2D = ct or D = ct/2.
The two main types of scans used in meteorology are
the Plan Position Indicator (PPI) and the Range Height Indicator (RHI) scans.
Plan Position Indicator (PPI):
When scanning in PPI mode, the radar holds its elevation angle constant but varies its azimuth angle. The returns can then be mapped on a horizontal plane. If the radar rotates through 360 degrees, the scan is called a “surveillance scan”. If the radar rotates through less than 360 degrees, the scan is called a “sector scan”.
Range Height Indicator (RHI):
When scanning in RHI mode, the radar holds its azimuth angle constant but varies its elevation angle. The returns can then be mapped on a vertical plane. The elevation angle normally is rotated from near the horizon to near the zenith (the point in the sky directly overhead).
Constant-Altitude Plan Position Indicator (CAPPI):
It is a composite radar display constructed by assembling radar data from many PPIs at successive elevation angles to obtain the pattern of the data at a specified constant altitude.
*CAPPIs are the common radar images displayed by Environment Canada (at 1.5 km above the surface from the radar site).
radial velocity
Doppler radars can measure the component of the velocity of targets toward or away from the radar. This component is called the “radial velocity”.
phase shift
The distance to target has changed from times T1 to T2, resulting in a phase shift between the two return signals, which Doppler radars are capable of measuring
By knowing the phase shift, the ………………………….. can be computed
wavelength and the time interval from T1 to T2, the velocity the target has moved toward or away from the radar can be computed
If the target is moving sideways so that its distance relative to the radar
does not change, the radar will record zero radial velocity for that target.
WSR-88D Radar Imagery
detects ……..
precipitaiton
The word radar is an acronym from
“Radio Detection and Ranging”
The word radar is an acronym from “Radio Detection and Ranging”. Radar images are useful for
locating precipitation
As a Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan examines the inside of a human body, a radar examines
the inside of a cloud
A radar sends
a pulse of energy into the atmosphere and if any precipitation is intercepted by the energy, part of the energy is scattered back to the radar. These returned signals, called “radar echoes”, are assembled to produce radar images.
The location of the colored radar echoes indicate where
precipitation is falling and the various colors indicate the intensity of the precipitation through the color code in the lower left corner of the image.
. Regions of light and dark blue indicate regions of
lighter precipitation
areas of red and pink indicate
strong, to occasionally severe thunderstorms
Normally, it is difficult to distinguish precipitation type on the basis of the
radar reflectivity alone.
Snow and light drizzle both produce radar reflectivity with
with about the same value
. Melting snow and moderate rain
also have similar values
Very high reflectivities
(the grays on the scale on the image above) are always associated with hail.
Heavier precipitation reflects more
microwave energy back to a radar than lighter rain
Heavier precipitation reflects more microwave energy back to a radar than lighter rain. However, more distant rain
also gives a weaker return signal
