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Advanced Cell Biology > Part 1 > Flashcards

Part 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Tissues

A

A group of cells that are similar in structure and function

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2
Q

Cells

A

fundamental unit of life; can be capable of independent existence or part of a tissue with a specific function

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3
Q

organelles

A

specialized compartments of a cell that perform a specific function

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4
Q

Molecules

A

chemical structure consisting of two or more atoms

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5
Q

What are the three domains of life?

A

bacteria, eukarya, archaea

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6
Q

DNA storage in eukaryote vs. prokaryote?

A

In eukaryote, DNA is stored in nucleus, away from the rest of the cell. In prokaryote, there is no nucleus and DNA is stored in cytoplasm .

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7
Q

Organelles in eukaryote vs. prokaryote?

A

eukaryotes have organelles, prokaryotes don’t

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8
Q

Metabolism in eukaryote vs. prokaryote?

A

In eukaryotes, most metabolism occurs in mitochondria. In prokaryotes, all metabolism occurs in cytoplasm

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9
Q

Size of eukaryote vs. prokaryote?

A

eukaryotes are large while prokaryotes are small

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10
Q

Chromosomes in eukaryote vs. prokaryote?

A

Eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes. Prokaryotes have a single circular chromosome.

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11
Q

What is the cell theory?

A
  • started in 1839
  • The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.
  • All living things are made up of one or more cells.
  • All living cells arise from pre-existing cells.
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12
Q

What is the central dogma of molecular biology?

A

DNA is transcribed to RNA which is translated to a chain of amino acids making a protein.

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13
Q

Elements

A

A simple chemical substance that cannot be reduced to smaller chemical parts

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14
Q

What are atoms composed of?

A

neutrons, protons, and electrons

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15
Q

Covalent bond

A

a strong chemical bond where pairs of electrons are shared between atoms

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16
Q

valence shell

A

the outermost shell of electrons

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17
Q

electronegativity

A
  • elements attract electrons to varying degrees, this level of attraction is electronegativity
  • the more electronegative an atom, the stronger it pulls electrons towards itself
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18
Q

Non-polar covalent bond

A
  • between two atoms of the same element
  • in a bond between two atoms of the same, there is a standoff in terms of electronegativity, resulting in a non-polar covalent bond
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19
Q

Ionic bonds

A

-sometimes differences in electronegativity can be so great that some atoms strip electrons from their bonding partners
-the two resulting oppositely charged atoms or molecules are called ions
-these ions attract each other: this attraction is called an ionic bond (weaker than covalent bonds)

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20
Q

What makes H2O a polar molecule?

A

the high electronegativity of oxygen
- water has a polar-covalent bond

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21
Q

Polar covalent bond

A

one atom is more electronegative and the atoms do not share the electron equally; causes partial positive and partial negative

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22
Q

hydrogen bond

A

the attraction between partial (+) charge of the hydrogen atom and (-) charge of another atoms is called hydrogen bond

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23
Q

solvent

A

the dissolving agent of a solution

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24
Q

solute

A

the substance that is dissolved

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25
Q

solution

A

a liquid that is a completely homogenous mixture of substances

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26
Q

hydrophilic

A

describes any substance that has an affinity for water, such as ionic or polar substances

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26
Q

hydrophobic

A

substances that repel water because they are nonionic or non polar

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27
Q

carboxyl

A

-COOH

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28
Q

What are the four protein-protein interactions?

A
  1. hydrogen bonds
  2. electrostatic (between + and - ions)
  3. van der Waals attraction (proximity attraction due to fluctuating charge) ‘
  4. hydrophobic interactions (strongest)
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29
Q

amino

A

-NH2

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30
Q

sulfhydryl

A

-SH

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31
Q

phosphate

A

-PO4

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32
Q

Carbonyl

A

-COH, -CO-

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33
Q

What is the build up and breakdown of polymers?

A

condensation then hydrolysis
- condensation: energetically unfavorable
-hydrolysis: energetically favorable

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34
Q

What type of bonds are sugar monomers joined by?

A

glycosidic bonds

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35
Q

types of sugar polymers?

A

monosaccharide (1), disaccharide (2), oligosaccharide (3-15), polysaccharide (16+)

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36
Q

Glycogen

A
  • a macromolecule used for energy storage (storage of extra sugar)
  • glycosidic bonds can form between different carbons with hydroxyl groups
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37
Q

Lipids

A
  • composed of fatty acids
  • long hydrocarbon chain (hydrophobic)
  • carboxyl group (hydrophilic)
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38
Q

Amphipathic

A

a molecule having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions

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39
Q

What determines saturation of fatty acids?

A

how saturated the fatty acid is with hydrogens

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40
Q

triagcylglycerols

A

glycerol + 3 fatty acids = triacylglycerol

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41
Q

Fatty acid storage in cells

A

fatty acids are stored in cells as a energy reserve (fats and oils) through an ester linkage to glycerol to form triacylglycerols

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42
Q

What alters the properties of fats?

A

tail length and degree of saturation

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43
Q

Phospholipids

A

the major structural component of cell membranes
- 2 fatty acids +glycerol + phosphate+ polar group
- Naming convention= phosphatidyl-X (X=name of the polar head group)

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44
Q

saturated fatty acid tails

A

straight

45
Q

unsaturated fatty acid tails

A

bent

46
Q

Parts of a Phospholipid

A
  • Hydrophilic Head: polar group + Phosphate
  • glycerol
  • Hydrophobic Tail: two fatty acid tails
47
Q

What do enzymes do?

A

catalyze reactions

48
Q

Catabolism

A
  • food molecules broken down into the many buildings blocks for bio synthesis
    -breaks things down
    -Through catalysis we get useful forms of energy and the many building blocks for biosynthesis
    -In catabolism a major portion of the energy stored in the chemical bonds of food molecules is dissipated as heat. But some of this energy is converted to the useful forms of energy that are needed to drive the synthesis of new molecules in anabolic pathways
49
Q

Anabolism

A

the many building blocks for biosynthesis become the molecules that form the cell
- builds things

50
Q

metabolism

A

the sum of all chemical reactions needed for a cell to survive

51
Q

How do cells create order, but increase disorder in their surroundings?

A
  1. take in energy food
  2. use that energy to make macromolecules (increase order)
  3. but this process overall releases heat (increases disorder of surroundings)
52
Q

Energy in cells

A
  • cells can convert energy from one form to another
  • energy cannot be created or destroyed, only change forms
53
Q

Importance of the sun

A
  • the ultimate source of energy for most living organisms
  • plants, algae, etc used sunlight to produce organic molecules from CO2
  • Animals obtain food by eating plants
54
Q

Photosynthesis Stage 1

A
  • Light reactions - energy from sun is captured and stored in activated carriers,
  • Oxygen is produced by breaking down water to form O2
55
Q

Photosynthesis Stage 2

A

Dark reactions: activated carriers are used to drive carbon fixation (building sugar from inorganic CO2)

56
Q

Photosynthesis

A

converts energy from sunlight to chemical bonds

57
Q

Carbon Fixation

A

building sugar from inorganic CO2

58
Q

Oxidative pathways

A

catabolic reaction release energy by breaking down organic molecules, including foods through oxidative pathways

59
Q

Catabolic reactions

A

provide the building blocks and energy required for anabolic reactions

60
Q

Oxidation

A

losing electrons
- if you are being oxidized you are losing an electron
- in many reactions the thing being oxidized is organic molecules

61
Q

Reduction

A

gaining an electron
- if you are being reduced you are gaining an electron

62
Q

Free Energy (G in kJ/mol)

A

measures the energy of a molecule that could in principle be used to do useful work at constant temperature, as in a living cell

63
Q

What bonds link amino acids?

A

peptide bonds

64
Q

Peptides

A

shorter chains (usually less than 50 amino acids) of amino acids

65
Q

Which amino acids have acidic side chains?

A

aspartic acid and glutamic acid

66
Q

Which amino acids have basic side chains?

A

lysine, arginine, histidine

67
Q

Which amino acids have uncharged polar side chains?

A

asparagine, glutamine, serine, threonine, tyrosine

68
Q

Which amino acids have non polar side chains?

A

alanine, valine,mathionine, tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine, glycine, cysteine, proline, phenylalanine

69
Q

disulfide bond

A

bond that forms between two cysteine side chains in proteins

70
Q

What does a nucleotide consist of?

A

base, phosphate, sugar

71
Q

Type of sugar in RNA?

A

beta-D-ribose

72
Q

Type of sugar in DNA?

A

Beta-D-2-deoxyribose

73
Q

Forms of nucleotide bases?

A

Pyrimidine (one ring) and purine (two rings)

74
Q

What bonds hold nucleotides together?

A

phosphodiester bonds (bond between phosphate group of one nucleotide and the methyl group of another

75
Q

Ends of nucleotide chains

A

starts with the 5’ end and goes to the 3’ end

76
Q

ATP

A

Adenosine triphosphate
- as nucleoside di-and triphosphates, they carry chemical energy in their easily hydrolyzed phosphoanhydride bonds.

77
Q

What is the bonds involved between lipids?

A

ester linkage

78
Q

What are the types of carbohydrates?

A

monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

79
Q

What are the types of lipids?

A

triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

80
Q

Types of proteins?

A

fibrous and globular

81
Q

What is the most abundant organic molecule in a cell?

A

macromolecules

82
Q

Macromolecule Formation

A
  • assemble in sequence by adding to one end of the molecule
  • enzymes required: repetitive process
  • energy required
  • condensation reaction
83
Q

(-)Delta G

A
  • the disorder of the universe increases and y is converted to x
  • this reaction can occur spontaneously
84
Q

+Delta G

A
  • the universe would become more ordered
  • this reaction can occur only if it is driven by being coupled to a second energetically favorable reaction
85
Q

How to enzymes catalyze reactions

A

by binding to particular substrates in a way that lowers the activation energy required for making and breaking specific covalent bonds

86
Q

Example of coupled reaction

A

sucrose is made in a reaction driven by the hydrolysis of ATP

87
Q

Effect of lowering activation energy?

A

increases reaction rates because more substrate molecules now have the energy to cross the barrier

88
Q

What effect does a reaction have on an enzyme?

A

enzymes are not changed by the reaction

89
Q

What does the Delta G for a chemical reaction depend on?

A

the concentrations of the reacting molecules

90
Q

equilibrium

A
  • no net charges in the conc. ratio of Y to X
  • the G = 0 for both rxns
91
Q

How do cells avoid equilibrium?

A
  • bring in new molecules (nutrients)
  • eliminate waste
  • products siphoned off to become reactants in the next reaction in a chain
92
Q

Standard Free Energy Change (delta G prime)

A
  • allows us to compare the energetics of different reactions
    delta G prime = free energy change based on fixed concentrations of 1mol/liter in aqueous solution
93
Q

For Y—> X : K=[x]/[y]

A

K is the ratio of product to substrate when the reaction is in equilibrium (G=0)
(Y–>X is favorable)
- reactant of lower conc. is always on bottom (product divided by reactant)
- Ex: K=2 –> 8X/4Y= 2

94
Q

“Random Walk”

A

molecules in a solution move in a random fashion due to the continual buffeting they receive in collisions with other molecules

95
Q

What determines the rate at which an enzyme will encounter its substrate?

A

the concentration of the substrate

96
Q

How do substrates bind to enzymes?

A
  • non-covalent interactions allow enzymes to bind to specific molecules
  • sum of many weak forces
  • interaction must be strong enough to stay together long enough for chemistry
97
Q

Enzymes effect on equilibrium

A
  • enzymes cannot change the equilibrium point for a reaction
  • enzymes accelerate the forward and backward reactions to the same degree
98
Q

ATP vs. NADH and NADPH

A
  • ATP: carries high-energy phosphate groups
  • NADH and NADPH: carry high-energy electrons
99
Q

Which activated carriers play a central part in coupled reactions in a cell?

A

ATP, NADH, NADPH

100
Q

What do activated carriers do?

A

capture and store the energy from favorable reactions in order to drive unfavorable reaction in the cell

101
Q

What is the most widely used energy carrier?

A

ATP

102
Q

Why is ATP to ADP favorable?

A
  • removes repulsion between adjacent negative charges on phosphate groups
  • inorganic phosphate ion that is released is able to form hydrogen bonds with water (doesn’t always end up just interacting with water)
103
Q

What can happen to the terminal phosphate in ATP hydrolysis?

A

it can be, and frequently is, transferred to another molecule

104
Q

Step 1 of Biosynthesis

A

the Activation step: ATP transfers a phosphate to A-OH to produce a high energy intermediate

105
Q

Biosynthesis Net Reaction
A-OH +B-H +ATP —>

A

A-B + ADP+ P

106
Q

Step 2 of Biosynthesis

A

the condensation step: the activated intermediate reacts with B-H to form the product A-B, a reaction accompanied by the release of inorganic phosphate

107
Q

NADH

A

oxidizing agent for catholic reactions

108
Q

NADPH

A

reducing agent for anabolizing reactions

109
Q
A

Advanced Cell Biology (7 decks)

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