part 1 Flashcards
experimental methods, observational techniques, self-report techniques, correlations, content analysis, case studies
define validity
Validity focuses on accuracy and accurately measuring the aim of the study. Additionally whether it can be generalised to the wider population outside of the research setting ==> two types: external and internal validity
Explain internal and external validity
internal validity:
measures whether the results are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not cofounding variables
external validity:
measures whether the results can be generalised outside of the research
1. ecological validity: other settings
2. population validity: other people
3. temporal validity: can be generalised over time
how can internal validity be improved?
reducing investigator effects and demand characteristics
how can external validity be improved?
setting the research or experiments in naturalistic environments ==> these have less control and so are more representative
what is reliability?
focuses on the consistency of a study in a way that if a study is completed in the exact same way and gets the same results, it is reliable
==> two types internal and external
what is internal and external validity?
internal: the extent something is consistent with itself
external: the extent a test measure is consistent over time
what is inter-observer reliability and what is its purpose?
two or more observers complete independent observations on the same study, if their results are similar then they are reliable
==> the purpose is designed to stop observer bias
what is concurrent validity?
assesses validity through correlation, correlating scores from research already existing and known to be valid
what is an aim?
a general statement about what the researcher intends to study which generates a theory that they want to test
what is a hypothesis?
a specific testable statement that references the operationalised variables being investigated
==> precise and has no ambiguity
what needs to be included in the hypothesis?
reference to the IV and the DV which have been operationalised - giving specifics on how each variable is being manipulated or measured
what is a directional / one-tailed hypothesis? + what is it an example of
predicts which direction the results will go in
==> example of an experimental hypothesis
why would a directional / one tailed hypothesis be used?
when there are research findings from previous studies therefore they show what past findings have been, and so what a researcher might expect to happen
what type of language would be included in a directional / one-tailed hypothesis?
comparison language that favours one side of the hypothesis
==> for example; faster/slower, increase/decrease, larger/smaller.
what is a non-directional / two-tailed hypothesis? + what is it an example of?
Doesn’t predict which direction the results may go, instead just states one variable that will affect another.
==> am example of an experimental hypothesis
why would a non-directional / two-tailed hypothesis be used?
there is no previous research to suggest what the results may be or when there is contradictory findings from previous research
what is a null hypothesis?
the hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the IV and the DV and so there will be no difference or correlation
==> if there is a relationship it is merely due to chance and not because of purposeful experimentation of the IV
what is an independent variable?
The factor which is changed / manipulated by the researcher in order to see the effect it has on the dependant variable
what is the dependant variable?
the factor which is being measured in the study by the researcher
what does it mean to operationalise the variables?
process of clearly defining variables so they become measurable factors
what is the benefit of operationalising variables?
being clearly defined allows for manipulation of the IV and also means the DV can be precisely measured as the hypothesis clearly states what they are testing
what if variables aren’t operationalised properly?
can make the results unreliable as the research will not be able to replicated and so also effects the validity of the research
what are extraneous variables?
difference factors that could affect the DV and only the DV.
==> essentially nuisance variables and so are usually controlled so they have the same effect across all conditions. This stops them effecting the outcome of the research in an unbalanced way
==> does not vary systematically with the IV
give examples of extraneous variables
participant variables such as intelligence as well as situational variables such as temperature and noise
what happens if extraneous variables aren’t controlled?
become cofounding variables
what are cofounding variables?
variables which can effect the DV and impact the outcome of the research
==> change systematically with the IV
what are examples of cofounding variables and how are they discovered?
they have been discovered after the experiment as they have impacted the results. For instance, if all participants in one condition were found to have better memories, be more competitive, better eyesight
what are demand characteristics?
any cue from the researcher which may mean the cause the to work out the what is expected of them and what the researcher is looking for
what is participant reactivity?
demand characteristics result in participant reactivity and means that they change their behaviour
what are the types of demand characteristics ?
please-you effect
- guessing the research purpose and then trying to please the researcher by acting or giving the answers they think they should to obtain the ‘right’ result
screw-you effect
- guessing the research purpose and attempting to intentionally skew the results and give the wrong results in order to destroy the credibility of the study
other than being subjected to demand characteristics, why else may participants change their behaviour?
change behaviour and act unnaturally out of fear, nervousness, or social desirability
what are investigator effects?
when the researcher influences the result of the research by affecting the DV and can be both conscious and unconscious
what are examples of investigator effects?
1- could be biased in their interpretation of data and although it is likely to be unconscious, it will still impact the results
2- researchers physical characteristics, such as age, gender, ethnicity, or appearacnce
3- researcher smiling or being more/less encouraging to participants or varying how instructions are given to participants to achieve results that favour their hypothesis (leads to demand characteristics)
what are two ways demand characteristics and investigator effects can be minimised?
Randomisation and Standardisation
what is randomisation
a way of trying to control any bias in the groups or conditions of an experiment
when should randomisation be used and why?
1- any materials used for example, a list of words for a memory test should be randomly generated. This stops the investigator assigning words and creating bias by having the ability to skew the groups
2- assigning people to groups should be randomly allocated. This stops the researcher assigning bias groups and to do this by either names out of hat method or random number generator which gives an equal chance
3- the order in which experiments are completed should be randomised in order to counteract the order effect (demand characteristics and boredom fatigue)
what is standardisation?
using the exact same format / procedures / instructions for all participants in the study
when and why should standardisation be used?
to create standardised instructions
- the instructions should be given to all participants in exactly same format to make it a fair test as no participants are getting clues or clues so it reduces bias.
- briefing and debriefing
- the order of the study
- timings and the time of day the experiment is
what is the benefit of using standardisation?
- research has higher replicability and is more reliable
- allows for meaningful data as bias is reduced
What are the three types of experimental design
independant groups
repeated measures
matched pairs
what is independent group design?
the groups / conditions are completely separate of each other.
participants are randomly allocated to each group / condition to avoid researcher bias.
each group does only one condition of the experiment and then the results from each are compared.
what is repeated measures design?
each participant completes all of the conditions of the experiment
what is a matched pairs design?
the participants in each group are carefully matched on important variables / characteristics (i.e social class, IQ, gender).
then the matched paired pps are randomly assigned so one goes into condition A and one goes into condition B.
- this is often used for MZ / identical twins as they create the perfect matched pair
what are strengths of independent groups design?
- less likely to have demand characteristics as pps only take part in one condition, meaning they are less likely to guess the purpose of the study and how to behave
- less likely to be order effects (cannot predict what happens next and change their behaviour) as they only take part in one condition
- time efficient as all sets of participants can be tested at the same time
what are limitation of independent groups design?
- can be participants variables. If more pps with a certain characteristic are all assigned randomly to one condition, this can effect the measure of the independent variable which leads to group differences effecting the results
- more pps are needed to ensure there are enough to take part in different conditions which can be difficult to access
what type of data does each experimental design produce
independant groups = unrelated data
repeated measures = related data
matched pairs = related data
what are strengths of repeated measures design?
-group differences are eliminated as the same pps are used in each condition, meaning participant variables do not effect the measurement of the independent variable
(may be variables between pps but don’t matter because if it affects one, it affects the rest of the conditions and thereby counteracts the effect)
- fewer pps are needed than independent groups design as they use the same pps for all conditions
==> easier to access
==> produce more data per participant
what are limitations of repeated measures design?
order effects can be a problem as pps take part in all conditions
- positive order effect = can result in better performance in second or beyond condition due to practice or learning what is expected (demand characteristics)
- negative order effect = result in worse performance as the pps could be bored / tired / lethargic
- demand characteristics are more likely as the pps are more likely to guess the purpose of the research due to taking part in multiple conditions
- more time required to allow for the pps to take part in multiple conditions
how can the problem of order effects be controlled and overcome?
counterbalancing
- splitting the pps into groups and changing the order of the conditions per group.
==> half do condition A then B whereas the other half do condition B then A
- even if order effects to occur, they are cancelled out from the counterbalancing of the conditions
what are the strengths of matched pair design?
- order effects are less likely to occur as they only partake in one condition (they cannot predict what happens next and change their behaviour
- less likely to have demand characteristics as only partake in one condition (less likely to guess the purpose of the study and how to alter their behaviour for that purpose)
what are limitations of matched pair design?
- matching is difficult and often impossible to match all characteristics, especially when the unmatched characteristic could be important to the results of the research.
==> even well matched pps could have different levels of motivation in the study, effecting the outcome - more participants needed to ensure there are enough to take part in the different conditions which can be difficult to access
- matching pps is very difficult and time consuming when MZ twins aren’t used.
what are the types of experiment?
lab
field
natural
quasi
what is a lab experiment?
- researcher has high levels of control over all of the variables within
- researcher is able to control the environmental factors such as noise and temperature; can control the experiences of pps and make sure everyone has identical instructions
- procedure will be standardised to allow for this
- all variables within experimental space are kept same and only the independent variable changes between conditions as that’s what they’re measuring to see the effects on the DV clearly
what is a field experiment?
- experiment is conducted in a naturalistic setting (i.e street, supermarket)
- IV is manipulated by the researcher but not in a lab
- DV is measured quantitatively
what is a natural experiment?
- researcher doesn’t manipulate the IV to measure the outcome
- IV has already or will change naturally
- researcher measures the natural change in the DV
- variables that could effect the DV aren’t measures nor controlled
what is a quasi-experiment
- have an IV that is based on an existing different between people
==> ie. age, gender, social class etc.
what are strengths of a lab experiment?
- cause and effect conclusions can be drawn due to the amount of control (can say the IV caused a change in the DV)
- The use of standardised procedure means that the research is replicable meaning increased reliability as the validity of results can be checked
- high mundane-realism as the independent variable can affect the dependant variable without interference from extraneous variables
what are limitations of lab experiments?
- more likely to be subjected to demand characteristics as pps know they are in a study so may alter their behaviour which impairs the validity of the study
- lacks ecological validity due to the artificial nature of the procedure ==> not reflective of a real life task and therefore lacks mundane realism as cannot be generalised to real-world behaviour
what are strengths of field experiments?
- high ecological validity as conducted in a real life setting so is more reflective
- less likely to subject to demand characteristics as often don’t know they’re being studied / are less likely to know what is expected from them in their ‘natural’ environment
- high mundane-realism as more representative of real world situations and therefore results are generalisable to real-world behaviour
what are limitations of field experiments?
- less controlled meaning a higher chance of extraneous variable which could affect the DV and thus, harder to establish cause and effect
- replication isn’t possible so lower reliability as validity cannot be confirmed
- ethical issues are a problem in terms of informed consent and privacy
- harder to randomly assign participants and so means more likely a change could happen due to participant variables, rather than what the researcher is measuring
what are strengths of natural experiments?
- provides opportunities for studies that wouldn’t be possible to do under controlled conditions due to ethical reasons or cost
- high external validity as conducted in a natural setting so real life situations so natural behaviours being exhibited and observed as there is no manipulation
what are limitation of natural experiments?
- difficult to establish cause and effect as too many variables which aren’t controlled and so they may be effecting the outcome
- rare events mean it’s difficult to generalise findings to other similar situations and thus, lack of reliability as incredibly unlikely to be able to replicate the same situation again
- pps cannot be randomly allocated to conditions which means even less sure whether it was the IV affecting the DV
what are strengths of Quasi-experiments?
what are limitations of Quasi-experiments?
what are pilot studies and what is the purpose of them?
Small scale trial investigations that test some or all aspects of the intended procedure with a very small number of pps
- they are carried out prior to the research to identify any issues which could arise
- they identify problems in the design, method, or analysis, allowing the to be altered and fixed (higher validity)
- pps can help identify issues and propose changes to stop the presence of demand characteristics
- pilot study data is not included in the final data set
what are the benefits of pilot studies?
- increase the validity
- potentially saves time and a lot of money as it helps avoid flawed designs
what is a single blind study?
pps are not told the true aim of the study
==> attempt to control for confounding variable of demand characteristics
what is a double blind study?
the pps are not told the true aim of the research and the research doesn’t either. In this case a third party researcher will conduct the experiment
==> this helps to reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects
what is the experimental group?
the group which have the IV altered in some way
==> for example, in a drug trial, this group would be given the drug
what is the control group?
this is the group which doesn’t have the IV altered in some way
==> for example, in a drug trial, this group would be given the placebo
what is the role of the BPS code of ethics?
has a code of ethics which includes the ethical guidelines researchers have an obligation to follow to ensure all participants are treated with respect and will come to no significant harm during the research process.
what are the ethical issues?
informed consent
protection from harm
deception
privacy and confidentiality
what is informed consent?
- they should know the aims prior to the study
- they should sign a form stating they agree to take part
- they should know they have the right to withdraw at any point (even if been paid)
how could informed consent negatively effect the results?
as they know the aim, they are subjected to demand characteristics and therefore their behaviour won’t be natural and results less valid
how do you deal with informed consent?
- issued with a consent letter that details all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate
- children under 16, parental consent is needed or from in ‘loco parentis’ eg teacher
what is deception?
deliberately withholding information or lying to the pps about the aim of the study
- may be okay if it doesn’t cause undue distress
when should deception be used?
when there’s no alternative
- eg if you tell a pps the aim of the study is obience, it will subject them to demand characteristics and provide unrepresentative results
Deception may be needed in order to get pps to behave naturally and eliminate demand characteristics or social desirability
if you decieve someone, you cannot get informed consent. How is this rectified?
consent still needs to be gained ethically
1: prior general consent
- pps agree to be deceived but do not know how. However this may effect their behaviour as they are waiting to be deceived
2- presumptive consent
- consent is gained from people who have a similar background to pps and if they say they would’ve consented, then it is deemed the actual pps would have also
3- retrospective consent
- requires asking the pps for informed consent after the research has been conducted
how to deal with deception?
at the end of the study pps should be given a full debrief which includes:
- true aims of study
- all relevant information explained
- should be told what the data will be used for
- must be given the right to withdraw and can still not be included in the results even though they took place in the study
Pps may have natural concerns about their performance behaviour and counselling is offered especially if they feel distressed by their participation
what is privacy and confidentiality?
- participants data and personal details should not be disclosed
- number should be used instead of names
- pps should not be studied in places that would be considered an invasion of privacy
- if privacy is invaded then confidentiality should be protected
what is observational research
observations can only take place in public where people would expect to be observed by strangers
what is the difference between confidential data and anonymous data?
confidential means it can be traced back to pps but anonymous means it cannot
how do you deal with privacyy and confidentiality?
if personal details are held, they must be protected
(refer to people using a number or their initials to maintain anonymity)
==> eg. case studies tend to use initials like patient HM
==> eg. a study using lots of pps tend to refer to them as a number
what is protection from harm?
- participants should be protected from both physical and psychological harm
( feeling embarrassed, humiliated, under stress or pressure)
how is protection from harm dealt with?
- reminded of their right to withdraw at any time in the study
- given a full debrief afterwards
- offered counselling especially if in a state of distress for example
what is the cost-benefit analysis ethic committee would look at?
weigh the costs of the research compared to the benefits the research would bring
- benefits could be findings
- costs could be damaging effects on an individual or the reputation of psychology as a whole
