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Research Methods (Psych) > part 1 > Flashcards

part 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is a directional hypothesis?

A

previous research may have been done

can predict the results

IV affects the DV

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2
Q

what is a null hypothesis?

A

IV will not affect the DV

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3
Q

what is a non-directional hypothesis?

A

IV will affect the DV

can’t predict the results

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4
Q

what is a participant variable?

A

extraneous variable where the age; gender; intelligence; experience etc of the participant may affect the study

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5
Q

what is situational variable?

A

when the surrounding environment and experimental setting may affect the study

e.g. noise, time of day, lighting etc

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6
Q

what is a confounding variable?

A

vary systematically with the IV

occur when extraneous variables are not controlled

decrease the validity of results

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7
Q

what are demand characteristics?

A

cues that make participants guess the aim of the study (unintentionally) so they change their behaviour

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8
Q

what is the please-U effect?

A

over performing to please the researcher

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9
Q

what is the screw-U effect?

A

under performing to sabotage results

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10
Q

what is randomisation?

A

the use of chance where possible to reduce investigator effects

e.g. a memory test where participants have to recall a list of words. the order of the words should be randomly generated so the researcher does not have an influence over the order

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11
Q

what is standardisation?

A

when we keep everything the same (apart from the IV) for each participant

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12
Q

what is random allocation?

A

randomly assigning people to the different experimental conditions

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13
Q

what is ABBA counterbalancing?

A

balancing the order we do conditions in when using repeated measures

i.e. participants experience the conditions in one order, then in the reverse order

reduces fatigue effects and practice effects

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14
Q

what does DRIPP stand for?

A 
deception 
right to withdraw 
informed consent 
protection from harm
privacy
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15
Q

what is deception?

A

deliberately withholding information or misleading participants

can deceive participants if it will not cause any distress once they have been debriefed (in which the true aim of the study will be fully explained)

can deceive for medical or scientific reasons as well

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16
Q

what is the right to withdraw?

A

should know they can withdraw at any time, and know how to withdraw

should not feel obliged to continue with their participation

if they withdraw, all their data will also be removed

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17
Q

what is informed consent?

A

participants should know as much as possible about the procedure before they agree to do it in a briefing

should sign a consent form

made aware of their rights (to withdraw) and any risks

under 16s need parental permission, and consent cannot be gained if they are on drugs or mentally unfit etc

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18
Q

what is presumptive consent?

A

a similar group of people are told about the study and asked if they are willing to take part. if they agree it is presumed that the real participants would too

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19
Q

what is prior general consent?

A

participants give their permission to take part in a number of studies, including at least one that will involve deception

if they agree to do this then they agree to be deceived

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20
Q

what is retrospective consent?

A

participants are asked for their consent at the end of they study in the debriefing

they may not be aware they had taken part or may originally have been deceived

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21
Q

what is protection of participants (from harm)?

A

must be protected form physical and psychological harm, including embarrassment, feeling pressured or inadequate

participants should not be at any more risk than they would be in their everyday lives

participants should leave the study in the same state they arrived in

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22
Q

what is privacy (and confidentiality)?

A

data should not be shared unless the participant agrees to it

personal data is protected under the data protection act, which participants should be told in the brief and debrief

data is anonymous, if personal data is needed then participants should be referred to using numbers or initials

participants can be observed in public places without their knowledge, but not in their own homes

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23
Q

what is included in a consent form?

A

introduction / greeting ‘dear participant’

explanation of the study without giving away the full aim

explanation of what they’ll be required to do

explanation of confidentiality

explanation of their right to withdraw

any other issues

signed and dated consent

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24
Q

what is included in a debrief form?

A

thank them for taking part in the study

explanation of the true aim and what they expect to find

remind them of confidentiality

remind them of their right to withdraw

let them know where to find further information (contact details)

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25
Q

what does Can Do Can’t Do With Participants stand for?

A

consent

deception

confidentiality

debriefing

withdrawal

protection

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26
Q

what is random sampling?

A

every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected e.g. pulling names out a hat or a random number generator

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27
Q

what are the advantages of random sampling?

A

for a large sample, it provides the best chance of an unbiased representative sample as everyone has equal chance

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28
Q

what are the disadvantages of random sampling?

A

for large populations it can be very time consuming or impossible to create a list of every individual from a target population

can still get a biased sample such as all males

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29
Q

what is systematic sampling?

A

every nth member of the target population is selected e.g. very 4th person

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30
Q

what are the advantages of systematic sampling?

A

avoids researcher bias

is fairly representative as it would be unlikely to get the same type of person

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31
Q

what are the disadvantages of systematic sampling?

A

not strictly random as each person does not stand an equal chance of being selected

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32
Q

what is stratified sampling?

A

a population is divided into sub-groups (strata), then randomly select participants from each strata

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33
Q

what are the advantages of stratified sampling?

A

avoids researcher bias

representative same is obtained so generalisation is possible

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34
Q

what are the disadvantages of stratified sampling?

A

identified strata cannot reflect all the ways people are different so complete representation is not possible

difficult to put people into sub-groups

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35
Q

what is volunteer sampling?

A

people choose to be in the study, may have responded to an ad

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36
Q

what are the advantages of volunteer sampling?

A

relatively convenient , quick and ethical if it leads to informed consent

can be targeted specifically at a certain population

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37
Q

what are the disadvantages of volunteer sampling?

A

unrepresentative as it leads to bias on the part of the participant

participants are more motivated so it’s not typical

not generalisable

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38
Q

what is opportunity sampling?

A

selecting people available at the time

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39
Q

what are the advantages of opportunity sampling?

A

quick, convenient and economical

most common type of sampling in practice

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40
Q

what are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling?

A

unrepresentative and biased as samples are usually small

researcher bias

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41
Q

what is a laboratory experiment?

A

an experiment conducted in a tightly controlled environment where the IV is manipulated as the researcher observed the effect of this on the DV

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42
Q

what is a field experiment?

A

an experiment carried out in a natural environment. the IV is still manipulated but is done in an environment typical to the behaviour being studied

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43
Q

what is a natural experiment?

A

can be carried out in a lab or a natural environment

the IV is not directly manipulated, the IV is naturally occurring

it is the IV that is natural, not the setting

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44
Q

what is a quasi experiment?

A

when the IV is based on existing differences between people such as age ethnicity or gender

the IV is not manipulated, it simply exists

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45
Q

what is the difference between a natural experiment and a quasi experiment?

A

natural is to do with setting

quasi is to do with the individual

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46
Q

what are the strengths of a lab experiment?

A

extraneous variables minimised

can make causal conclusions - the IV affects the DV

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47
Q

what’s are the weaknesses of a lab experiment?

A

lack mundane realism

may show demand characteristics

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48
Q

what is mundane realism?

A

the degree to which the materials and procedures involved in an experiment are similar to events that occur in the real world

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49
Q

what are the strengths of a field experiment?

A

fewer demand characteristics

greater ecological validity

generalisable

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50
Q

what are the weaknesses of a field experiment?

A

less control over extraneous variables

difficult to replicate (low reliability)

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51
Q

what are the strengths of a natural/quasi experiment?

A

high ecological validity as IV is naturally occurring

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52
Q

what are the weaknesses of a natural/quasi experiment?

A

no control over IV or extraneous variables

harder to identify cause and effect

impossible to replicate as IV cannot be manipulated

53
Q

what is repeated measures?

A

when all participants are exposed to all levels of the IV

same people, different IV

54
Q

what are the strengths of repeated measures?

A

fewer participants needed

decreases participant variables

55
Q

what are the limitations of repeated measures?

A

order effects can occur

time needs to be taken between each condition meaning people could drop out (time of testing becomes a confounding variable)

56
Q

what are the order effects?

A

fatigue
learning
practice
boredom

57
Q

what is independent groups?

A

when more than one group is used and each group is exposed to a different level of the IV

58
Q

what are the strengths of independent groups?

A

fewer order effects

reduces demand characteristics

no need to leave a gap in between

same materials can be used

59
Q

what are the weaknesses of independent measures?

A

participant variables

more participants needed

60
Q

what is matched pairs?

A

an independent groups design where participants are matched on specific variables (e.g. IQ, reading ability, genes)

61
Q

what are the strengths of matched pairs?

A

some participant variables can be controlled

fewer order effects

62
Q

what are the limitations of matched pairs?

A

time consuming to match participants

cannot match participants on every variable that could affect the study, so you must match them on the most key variable

if one pair withdraws, the whole pair is then lost

63
Q

what are the experimental designs?

A

repeated measures
independent groups
matched pairs

64
Q

what are the types of observation?

A 
naturalistic
controlled
non-participant 
participant
covert 
overt
structured
unstructured
65
Q

what is a naturalistic observation?

A

takes place in the participants natural setting

66
Q

what are the strengths of a naturalistic observation?

A

high ecological validity

in-depth and detailed data

67
Q

what are the weaknesses of a naturalistic observation?

A

may be subjectivity as the observer chooses what to record

not generalisable

68
Q

what is a controlled observation?

A

some variables in the environment are regulated by the researcher

69
Q

what are the strengths of a controlled observation?

A

reliable

high ecological validity

consistent results when replicated

70
Q

what are the weaknesses of a controlled observation?

A

demand characteristics

reduces the ‘naturalness’ of environment and therefore the ‘naturalness’ of the participants as well

71
Q

what is a non-participant observation?

A

observer is not a part of what is happening

72
Q

what are the strengths of non-participant observations?

A

easier to record data

objective

73
Q

what are the weaknesses of a non-participant observation?

A

researcher may miss something the participants have a shared understanding of

researchers may affect the study with their presence

74
Q

what is a participant observation?

A

observers are a part of what they are observing; they are involved in the activity, group or situation

75
Q

what’s re the strengths of a participant observation?

A

ecological validity

natural setting so valid data

76
Q

what are the weaknesses of a participant observation?

A

hard to record data

not reliable

77
Q

what is an covert observation?

A

participants do not know they are being watched

78
Q

what’s are the strengths of a covert observation?

A

natural behaviour

79
Q

what are the weaknesses of a covert observation?

A

often unethical

observer can’t be helped by the participants

80
Q

what is an overt observation?

A

the participants know the observation is taking place and they are aware of all aspects of the study

81
Q

what are the strengths of an overt observation?

A

ethical as informed consent is gained

observers can ask for help

82
Q

what’s are the weaknesses of an overt observation?

A

participants may not act naturally

difficult to carry out

83
Q

what is a structured observation?

A

when we have a behavioural checklist; have a preset objective to look for

84
Q

what are the strengths of a structured observation?

A

more objective

easier to count and can operationalise behaviours

85
Q

what are the weaknesses of a structural observation?

A

quantitative data so less rich

86
Q

what is an unstructured observation?

A

writing down everything they see as they see it

87
Q

what are the strengths of an unstructured observation?

A

rich qualitative data

can be used as a pilot study

88
Q

what are the weaknesses of an unstructured observation?

A

highly subjective

data may not be relevant

could miss things

89
Q

what is event sampling?

A

recording every time the even occurs

90
Q

what are the strengths of event sampling?

A

get rich data

91
Q

what’s re the weaknesses of event sampling?

A

could get too much data

could miss details

92
Q

what is time sampling?

A

recoding data at time intervals

e.g. every 5 minutes

93
Q

what are the strengths of time sampling?

A

can manage a large amount of data

94
Q

what are the weaknesses of time sampling?

A

not representative

could miss behaviour in between intervals

95
Q

what is inter-observer reliability?

A

more than one observer observes the same behaviour at the same time with the same checklist

96
Q

what are the strengths of inter-observer reliability?

A

reduces researcher bias

data is more objective

97
Q

what are the strengths of questionnaires?

A

cost effective

straightforward

large amounts of data

98
Q

what are the weaknesses of questionnaires?

A

may not be truthful - social desirability bias

response bias

99
Q

what is a likert scale?

A

1 2 3 4 5
strong agree neutral disagree strong
agree disagree

100
Q

what is a rating scale?

A

very good 1 2 3 4 5 not good at all

101
Q

what is a fixed choice option?

A

🔲 option 1
🔲 option 2
🔲 option 3

102
Q

what to avoid when conducting interviews or questionnaires?

A

over use of jargon

emotive language or leading questions

double barrelled questions and double negatives

103
Q

what is jargon?

A

technical terms participants are likely to be unaware of

104
Q

what is a correlation?

A

the relationship / association between co-variables

105
Q

what are co-variables?

A

the relationship / association between 2 variables

106
Q

how do you write a null hypothesis for a correlational study?

A

there is no correlation between VARIABLE 1 and VARIABLE 2

107
Q

how do you write a non-directional hypothesis for a correlational study?

A

there is a correlation between VARIABLE 1 and VARIABLE 2

108
Q

how do you write a directional hypothesis for a correlational study?

A

there is a POSITIVE/NEGATIVE correlation between VARIABLE 1 and VARIABLE 2

109
Q

does correlation mean causation?

A

no!

110
Q

how high does a correlation need to be to be strong?

A

if it ain’t 0.8, it ain’t great!

111
Q

what is the case study of Anna O?

A

she was 21 and extremely intellectual

developed symptoms such as not eating, becoming anaemic and weak while nursing her father through illness

she became hysterical, deaf, had headaches, narrowing of visual field, paralysis of the neck and a loss of sensation in the limbs, had a speech impediment and became mute for some time

after her father passed she couldn’t recognise faces and showed two personalities: one was anxious and depressed, the other was irrational and aggressive

admitted to a sanatorium where she began her ‘talking cure’ and spoke of her free will

linked her deafness to an event where her brother caught her listening to her parents having sex

during this process her symptoms would worsen, but once discussed, they would disappear

112
Q

what is a pilot study?

A

a small-scale trial study before carrying out the full-scale study

113
Q

why is a pilot study done?

A

to ensure participants understand their role in the study

to ensure that any issues or problems with the procedure (e.g. sampling) is ironed out

114
Q

what is clinical psychology?

A

seeks to understand and treat mental health problems, which is estimated to cost the economy £70 billion per year (due to loss of work) which exceed what is would cost to make psychological therapies available to everyone

115
Q

what is political psychology?

A

seeks to understand prejudice, social injustice and the marginalisation of minorities, helping these groups to play a fuller role in society and the workplace

116
Q

what is cognitive psychology?

A

seeks to understand the psychology of creativity, where new ideas come from, and an understanding of long-term memory to help workers train quicker and more effectively

117
Q

what is educational psychology?

A

seeks to understand mood, motivation and effective learning

this can be applied in schools to increase attainment and by employers to boost productivity

118
Q

what is forensic psychology?

A

seeks to understand and tackle crime, for example via the study of eyewitness testimony and rehabilitating offending

this benefits businesses and workers, and reduces costs to society e.g. from unfair convictions, and increases the supply of potential workers

119
Q

what does PROFET stand for?

A

(features of the scientific method)

paradigms 
replicability
objectivity
falsifiability 
empirical methods 
theory construction & hypothesis testing
120
Q

what is objectivity?

A

when scientists’ expectations should not affect what they record
the observer should not let personal prejudices or emotions influence their theory, explanations, findings etc
don’t use bias in research

121
Q

what are empirical methods?

A

collecting data through direct observation or experiment- gathering data in a scientific way

the opposite is rational research which is constructed from reasoned argument

e.g. if one wanted to decide the world would end in 20 days, the rational approach would be to argue that such a thing was unlikely, the empirical approach would be to wait and see what happens

122
Q

what is replicability?

A

considered essential in scientific research

can’t claim something has a scientific effect if it can’t be repeated, otherwise the result may have been a fluke

to be replicated, the original study must be published in as much detail as possible, so someone could repeat it exactly to compare results

replicability tends to be greatest when experiments are conducted in a carefully controlled way across different contexts

similar results = reliable

123
Q

what is falsifiability?

A

the idea a theory can’t be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proven false

Karl Popper argues the key criterion of a scientific theory is its ability to be falsified. he proposed theories should hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proven false. believed that despite a theory being successful and repeatedly tested, this just means it has not yet been proven false

theories that survive the most attempts at falsification become the strongest

you can’t falsify something you can’t test, and can’t falsify something that isn’t scientific

124
Q

what is a paradigm and a paradigm shift?

A

a paradigm is a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods with a scientific discipline

a paradigm shift is the result of a scientific revolution - a significant change in the dominant theory within a scientific discipline

a handful of researchers question the accepted paradigm, this gathers pace and popularity and eventually a paradigm shift occurs where there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore (otherwise we would still think the earth is flat)

Thomas Khun claimed psychology should be considered a pre-science as it lacks a universally accepted paradigm unlike natural sciences such as biology and physics, there is too much internal disagreement so it is considered a pre-science

125
Q

what is theory construction & hypothesis testing?

A

one aim of science is to record facts, and another aim is to use facts to construct theories to help us understand and predict the natural phenomena around us

testing a single hypothesis cannot usually test an entire theory, instead, specific hypotheses are generated and tested in order to test specific elements of a theory

theory construction can be inductive or deductive

126
Q

what is an inductive hypothesis?

A

test first, then get a theory

127
Q

what is a deductive hypothesis?

A

get a theory first, then test it

128
Q

what are reasons why psychology can claim to be a science?

A

shares the goals of all sciences and uses scientific methods

uses well-controlled environments

use quantified measurements and statistical analysis

research can be objective

129
Q

what are reasons psychology can not claim to be a science?

A

Miller (1983) suggests psychologists who attempt to be scientists are doing no more than dressing up

lack of objectivity - experimenter bias and demand characteristics

can be biased/based on peoples beliefs

Research Methods (Psych) (2 decks)

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