part 1 Flashcards
what is a directional hypothesis?
previous research may have been done
can predict the results
IV affects the DV
what is a null hypothesis?
IV will not affect the DV
what is a non-directional hypothesis?
IV will affect the DV
can’t predict the results
what is a participant variable?
extraneous variable where the age; gender; intelligence; experience etc of the participant may affect the study
what is situational variable?
when the surrounding environment and experimental setting may affect the study
e.g. noise, time of day, lighting etc
what is a confounding variable?
vary systematically with the IV
occur when extraneous variables are not controlled
decrease the validity of results
what are demand characteristics?
cues that make participants guess the aim of the study (unintentionally) so they change their behaviour
what is the please-U effect?
over performing to please the researcher
what is the screw-U effect?
under performing to sabotage results
what is randomisation?
the use of chance where possible to reduce investigator effects
e.g. a memory test where participants have to recall a list of words. the order of the words should be randomly generated so the researcher does not have an influence over the order
what is standardisation?
when we keep everything the same (apart from the IV) for each participant
what is random allocation?
randomly assigning people to the different experimental conditions
what is ABBA counterbalancing?
balancing the order we do conditions in when using repeated measures
i.e. participants experience the conditions in one order, then in the reverse order
reduces fatigue effects and practice effects
what does DRIPP stand for?
deception right to withdraw informed consent protection from harm privacy
what is deception?
deliberately withholding information or misleading participants
can deceive participants if it will not cause any distress once they have been debriefed (in which the true aim of the study will be fully explained)
can deceive for medical or scientific reasons as well
what is the right to withdraw?
should know they can withdraw at any time, and know how to withdraw
should not feel obliged to continue with their participation
if they withdraw, all their data will also be removed
what is informed consent?
participants should know as much as possible about the procedure before they agree to do it in a briefing
should sign a consent form
made aware of their rights (to withdraw) and any risks
under 16s need parental permission, and consent cannot be gained if they are on drugs or mentally unfit etc
what is presumptive consent?
a similar group of people are told about the study and asked if they are willing to take part. if they agree it is presumed that the real participants would too
what is prior general consent?
participants give their permission to take part in a number of studies, including at least one that will involve deception
if they agree to do this then they agree to be deceived
what is retrospective consent?
participants are asked for their consent at the end of they study in the debriefing
they may not be aware they had taken part or may originally have been deceived
what is protection of participants (from harm)?
must be protected form physical and psychological harm, including embarrassment, feeling pressured or inadequate
participants should not be at any more risk than they would be in their everyday lives
participants should leave the study in the same state they arrived in
what is privacy (and confidentiality)?
data should not be shared unless the participant agrees to it
personal data is protected under the data protection act, which participants should be told in the brief and debrief
data is anonymous, if personal data is needed then participants should be referred to using numbers or initials
participants can be observed in public places without their knowledge, but not in their own homes
what is included in a consent form?
introduction / greeting ‘dear participant’
explanation of the study without giving away the full aim
explanation of what they’ll be required to do
explanation of confidentiality
explanation of their right to withdraw
any other issues
signed and dated consent
what is included in a debrief form?
thank them for taking part in the study
explanation of the true aim and what they expect to find
remind them of confidentiality
remind them of their right to withdraw
let them know where to find further information (contact details)
what does Can Do Can’t Do With Participants stand for?
consent
deception
confidentiality
debriefing
withdrawal
protection
what is random sampling?
every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected e.g. pulling names out a hat or a random number generator
what are the advantages of random sampling?
for a large sample, it provides the best chance of an unbiased representative sample as everyone has equal chance
what are the disadvantages of random sampling?
for large populations it can be very time consuming or impossible to create a list of every individual from a target population
can still get a biased sample such as all males
what is systematic sampling?
every nth member of the target population is selected e.g. very 4th person
what are the advantages of systematic sampling?
avoids researcher bias
is fairly representative as it would be unlikely to get the same type of person
what are the disadvantages of systematic sampling?
not strictly random as each person does not stand an equal chance of being selected
what is stratified sampling?
a population is divided into sub-groups (strata), then randomly select participants from each strata
what are the advantages of stratified sampling?
avoids researcher bias
representative same is obtained so generalisation is possible
what are the disadvantages of stratified sampling?
identified strata cannot reflect all the ways people are different so complete representation is not possible
difficult to put people into sub-groups
what is volunteer sampling?
people choose to be in the study, may have responded to an ad
what are the advantages of volunteer sampling?
relatively convenient , quick and ethical if it leads to informed consent
can be targeted specifically at a certain population
what are the disadvantages of volunteer sampling?
unrepresentative as it leads to bias on the part of the participant
participants are more motivated so it’s not typical
not generalisable
what is opportunity sampling?
selecting people available at the time
what are the advantages of opportunity sampling?
quick, convenient and economical
most common type of sampling in practice
what are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling?
unrepresentative and biased as samples are usually small
researcher bias
what is a laboratory experiment?
an experiment conducted in a tightly controlled environment where the IV is manipulated as the researcher observed the effect of this on the DV
what is a field experiment?
an experiment carried out in a natural environment. the IV is still manipulated but is done in an environment typical to the behaviour being studied
what is a natural experiment?
can be carried out in a lab or a natural environment
the IV is not directly manipulated, the IV is naturally occurring
it is the IV that is natural, not the setting
what is a quasi experiment?
when the IV is based on existing differences between people such as age ethnicity or gender
the IV is not manipulated, it simply exists
what is the difference between a natural experiment and a quasi experiment?
natural is to do with setting
quasi is to do with the individual
what are the strengths of a lab experiment?
extraneous variables minimised
can make causal conclusions - the IV affects the DV
what’s are the weaknesses of a lab experiment?
lack mundane realism
may show demand characteristics
what is mundane realism?
the degree to which the materials and procedures involved in an experiment are similar to events that occur in the real world
what are the strengths of a field experiment?
fewer demand characteristics
greater ecological validity
generalisable
what are the weaknesses of a field experiment?
less control over extraneous variables
difficult to replicate (low reliability)
what are the strengths of a natural/quasi experiment?
high ecological validity as IV is naturally occurring
what are the weaknesses of a natural/quasi experiment?
no control over IV or extraneous variables
harder to identify cause and effect
impossible to replicate as IV cannot be manipulated
what is repeated measures?
when all participants are exposed to all levels of the IV
same people, different IV
what are the strengths of repeated measures?
fewer participants needed
decreases participant variables
what are the limitations of repeated measures?
order effects can occur
time needs to be taken between each condition meaning people could drop out (time of testing becomes a confounding variable)
what are the order effects?
fatigue
learning
practice
boredom
what is independent groups?
when more than one group is used and each group is exposed to a different level of the IV
what are the strengths of independent groups?
fewer order effects
reduces demand characteristics
no need to leave a gap in between
same materials can be used
what are the weaknesses of independent measures?
participant variables
more participants needed
what is matched pairs?
an independent groups design where participants are matched on specific variables (e.g. IQ, reading ability, genes)
what are the strengths of matched pairs?
some participant variables can be controlled
fewer order effects
what are the limitations of matched pairs?
time consuming to match participants
cannot match participants on every variable that could affect the study, so you must match them on the most key variable
if one pair withdraws, the whole pair is then lost
what are the experimental designs?
repeated measures
independent groups
matched pairs
what are the types of observation?
naturalistic controlled non-participant participant covert overt structured unstructured
what is a naturalistic observation?
takes place in the participants natural setting
what are the strengths of a naturalistic observation?
high ecological validity
in-depth and detailed data
what are the weaknesses of a naturalistic observation?
may be subjectivity as the observer chooses what to record
not generalisable
what is a controlled observation?
some variables in the environment are regulated by the researcher
what are the strengths of a controlled observation?
reliable
high ecological validity
consistent results when replicated
what are the weaknesses of a controlled observation?
demand characteristics
reduces the ‘naturalness’ of environment and therefore the ‘naturalness’ of the participants as well
what is a non-participant observation?
observer is not a part of what is happening
what are the strengths of non-participant observations?
easier to record data
objective
what are the weaknesses of a non-participant observation?
researcher may miss something the participants have a shared understanding of
researchers may affect the study with their presence
what is a participant observation?
observers are a part of what they are observing; they are involved in the activity, group or situation
what’s re the strengths of a participant observation?
ecological validity
natural setting so valid data
what are the weaknesses of a participant observation?
hard to record data
not reliable
what is an covert observation?
participants do not know they are being watched
what’s are the strengths of a covert observation?
natural behaviour
what are the weaknesses of a covert observation?
often unethical
observer can’t be helped by the participants
what is an overt observation?
the participants know the observation is taking place and they are aware of all aspects of the study
what are the strengths of an overt observation?
ethical as informed consent is gained
observers can ask for help
what’s are the weaknesses of an overt observation?
participants may not act naturally
difficult to carry out
what is a structured observation?
when we have a behavioural checklist; have a preset objective to look for
what are the strengths of a structured observation?
more objective
easier to count and can operationalise behaviours
what are the weaknesses of a structural observation?
quantitative data so less rich
what is an unstructured observation?
writing down everything they see as they see it
what are the strengths of an unstructured observation?
rich qualitative data
can be used as a pilot study
what are the weaknesses of an unstructured observation?
highly subjective
data may not be relevant
could miss things
what is event sampling?
recording every time the even occurs
what are the strengths of event sampling?
get rich data
what’s re the weaknesses of event sampling?
could get too much data
could miss details
what is time sampling?
recoding data at time intervals
e.g. every 5 minutes
what are the strengths of time sampling?
can manage a large amount of data
what are the weaknesses of time sampling?
not representative
could miss behaviour in between intervals
what is inter-observer reliability?
more than one observer observes the same behaviour at the same time with the same checklist
what are the strengths of inter-observer reliability?
reduces researcher bias
data is more objective
what are the strengths of questionnaires?
cost effective
straightforward
large amounts of data
what are the weaknesses of questionnaires?
may not be truthful - social desirability bias
response bias
what is a likert scale?
1 2 3 4 5
strong agree neutral disagree strong
agree disagree
what is a rating scale?
very good 1 2 3 4 5 not good at all
what is a fixed choice option?
🔲 option 1
🔲 option 2
🔲 option 3
what to avoid when conducting interviews or questionnaires?
over use of jargon
emotive language or leading questions
double barrelled questions and double negatives
what is jargon?
technical terms participants are likely to be unaware of
what is a correlation?
the relationship / association between co-variables
what are co-variables?
the relationship / association between 2 variables
how do you write a null hypothesis for a correlational study?
there is no correlation between VARIABLE 1 and VARIABLE 2
how do you write a non-directional hypothesis for a correlational study?
there is a correlation between VARIABLE 1 and VARIABLE 2
how do you write a directional hypothesis for a correlational study?
there is a POSITIVE/NEGATIVE correlation between VARIABLE 1 and VARIABLE 2
does correlation mean causation?
no!
how high does a correlation need to be to be strong?
if it ain’t 0.8, it ain’t great!
what is the case study of Anna O?
she was 21 and extremely intellectual
developed symptoms such as not eating, becoming anaemic and weak while nursing her father through illness
she became hysterical, deaf, had headaches, narrowing of visual field, paralysis of the neck and a loss of sensation in the limbs, had a speech impediment and became mute for some time
after her father passed she couldn’t recognise faces and showed two personalities: one was anxious and depressed, the other was irrational and aggressive
admitted to a sanatorium where she began her ‘talking cure’ and spoke of her free will
linked her deafness to an event where her brother caught her listening to her parents having sex
during this process her symptoms would worsen, but once discussed, they would disappear
what is a pilot study?
a small-scale trial study before carrying out the full-scale study
why is a pilot study done?
to ensure participants understand their role in the study
to ensure that any issues or problems with the procedure (e.g. sampling) is ironed out
what is clinical psychology?
seeks to understand and treat mental health problems, which is estimated to cost the economy £70 billion per year (due to loss of work) which exceed what is would cost to make psychological therapies available to everyone
what is political psychology?
seeks to understand prejudice, social injustice and the marginalisation of minorities, helping these groups to play a fuller role in society and the workplace
what is cognitive psychology?
seeks to understand the psychology of creativity, where new ideas come from, and an understanding of long-term memory to help workers train quicker and more effectively
what is educational psychology?
seeks to understand mood, motivation and effective learning
this can be applied in schools to increase attainment and by employers to boost productivity
what is forensic psychology?
seeks to understand and tackle crime, for example via the study of eyewitness testimony and rehabilitating offending
this benefits businesses and workers, and reduces costs to society e.g. from unfair convictions, and increases the supply of potential workers
what does PROFET stand for?
(features of the scientific method)
paradigms replicability objectivity falsifiability empirical methods theory construction & hypothesis testing
what is objectivity?
when scientists’ expectations should not affect what they record
the observer should not let personal prejudices or emotions influence their theory, explanations, findings etc
don’t use bias in research
what are empirical methods?
collecting data through direct observation or experiment- gathering data in a scientific way
the opposite is rational research which is constructed from reasoned argument
e.g. if one wanted to decide the world would end in 20 days, the rational approach would be to argue that such a thing was unlikely, the empirical approach would be to wait and see what happens
what is replicability?
considered essential in scientific research
can’t claim something has a scientific effect if it can’t be repeated, otherwise the result may have been a fluke
to be replicated, the original study must be published in as much detail as possible, so someone could repeat it exactly to compare results
replicability tends to be greatest when experiments are conducted in a carefully controlled way across different contexts
similar results = reliable
what is falsifiability?
the idea a theory can’t be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proven false
Karl Popper argues the key criterion of a scientific theory is its ability to be falsified. he proposed theories should hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proven false. believed that despite a theory being successful and repeatedly tested, this just means it has not yet been proven false
theories that survive the most attempts at falsification become the strongest
you can’t falsify something you can’t test, and can’t falsify something that isn’t scientific
what is a paradigm and a paradigm shift?
a paradigm is a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods with a scientific discipline
a paradigm shift is the result of a scientific revolution - a significant change in the dominant theory within a scientific discipline
a handful of researchers question the accepted paradigm, this gathers pace and popularity and eventually a paradigm shift occurs where there is too much contradictory evidence to ignore (otherwise we would still think the earth is flat)
Thomas Khun claimed psychology should be considered a pre-science as it lacks a universally accepted paradigm unlike natural sciences such as biology and physics, there is too much internal disagreement so it is considered a pre-science
what is theory construction & hypothesis testing?
one aim of science is to record facts, and another aim is to use facts to construct theories to help us understand and predict the natural phenomena around us
testing a single hypothesis cannot usually test an entire theory, instead, specific hypotheses are generated and tested in order to test specific elements of a theory
theory construction can be inductive or deductive
what is an inductive hypothesis?
test first, then get a theory
what is a deductive hypothesis?
get a theory first, then test it
what are reasons why psychology can claim to be a science?
shares the goals of all sciences and uses scientific methods
uses well-controlled environments
use quantified measurements and statistical analysis
research can be objective
what are reasons psychology can not claim to be a science?
Miller (1983) suggests psychologists who attempt to be scientists are doing no more than dressing up
lack of objectivity - experimenter bias and demand characteristics
can be biased/based on peoples beliefs
