parent-caregiver interaction (reciprocity, interactional synchrony)

Question 1

what is reciprocity

Answer 1

• This refers to a form of turn-taking communication between infant and caregiver, rather like a conversation, but typically without words.
• It is a two-way/mutual process; each person responds to the other’s signals to sustain interaction (turn-taking).
  e.g. the mother smiles and the baby smiles back.

Question 2

what is interactional synchrony

Answer 2

• where an infant mirrors the actions of their caregiver, their facial expressions and body movements
• moving their body in tune with the rhythm of their carer.
  → Think of synchronised swimming

Question 3

what was Meltzoff + Moore’s aim of study

Answer 3

To investigate reciprocity between infants and their caregivers.

Question 4

what was Meltzoff + Moore’s procedure

Answer 4

• conducted a series of controlled observations using babies (aged 6 to 27 days old).
• The babies were exposed to four different stimuli; three facial gestures (e.g. sticking tongue out) and one manual gesture (e.g. waving fingers).
• The babies response to each of these gestures were observed and their actions were video recorded.
• An independent observer (who had no knowledge of what the infant had just seen) was asked to note all instances of tongue protrusion and head movements using a number of behavioural categories.
• Each observer scored the recordings twice (allowing for both inter-rater reliability and intra-observer reliability to be assessed).

Question 5

what were Meltzoff + Moore’s findings

Answer 5

The results indicated that babies aged 12 to 27 days old could imitate both facial expressions and manual gestures.

Question 6

what was Meltzoff + Moore’s conclusion

Answer 6

Meltzoff and Moore concluded that the ability to imitate serves as an important building block for later social and cognitive development.

Question 7

what are the +ve AO3 points for parent-caregiver interaction

Answer 7

• motherese
• motherese - a universal phenomenon
• Meltzoff + Moore used an independent observer

Question 8

what is motherese or parentese

Answer 8

• the sing-song like tone of voice/language parents often use to talk to infants. Otherwise known as “baby - talk”.
• There is an abundance of research which suggests that this type of caregiver interaction is really important in terms of the child’s development- both from a language and an attachment perspective.

Question 9

expand on the +ve AO3 point: Meltzoff + Moore used an independent observer

Answer 9

• This is one huge strength of Meltzoff and Moore’s research
• the fact they used an independent observer who had no idea of the aim of the study really suggests that the results are meaningful and can be trusted.

Question 10

expand on the +ve AO3 point: motherese

Answer 10

• Research suggests that parents who use this style of communication bring about much more sophisticated language development in their children.
• There is also evidence that the children grow up with a heightened ability to be engage in reciprocity and interactional synchrony.
• Research also suggests that infants show a marked preference for adults who use motherese. It captures their attention and enhances communication.
• research also suggests that the amount of motherese an infant is exposed to directly affects the levels of oxytocin in the infant’s brain- which could be linked to future attachment.

Question 11

expand on the +ve AO3 point: motherese - a universal phenomenon

Answer 11

• The fact the Motherese is a feature of communication used all over the world suggests that it is a biological or evolutionary drive –> it is not culturally specific/governed by social norms
• This suggests that this style of caregiver-infant interaction has adaptive benefits from an evolutionary perspective.

Question 12

what are the -ve AO3 points for parent -caregiver interaction

Answer 12

• internal validity
• observer bias
• Interactional Synchrony is only present in Secure Infant

Question 13

expand on the -ve AO3 point: internal validity

Answer 13

• One limitation of research into caregiver–infant interactions is the questionable internal validity of testing infants.
• infants move their mouths and wave their arms constantly - as they do not have the ability to control them yet.
• Therefore, we cannot be certain that the infants were engaging in interactional synchrony or reciprocity, as some of the behaviour may have occurred by chance.
• This questions the validity of research in relation to reciprocity and interactional synchrony and suggests that psychologists should be cautious when interpreting the findings from research in this area.

Question 14

expand on the -ve AO3 point: observer bias

Answer 14

• There are methodological problems with studying interactional synchrony using observational methods.
• There is the possibility of observer bias where the researchers consciously or unconsciously interpret behaviour to support their findings.
• This is one huge strength of Meltzoff and Moore’s research- the fact they used an independent observer who had no idea of the aim of the study really suggests that the results are meaningful and can be trusted.

Question 15

expand on the -ve AO3 point: Interactional Synchrony is only present in Secure Infant

Answer 15

• A further criticism of Meltzoff & Moore’s research is that recent research has found that only securely attached infants engage in interactional synchrony.
• Isabella et al. (1989) found that the more securely attached the infant, the greater the level of interactional synchrony.
• This suggests that not all children engage in interactional synchrony and that Meltzoff & Moore’s original findings may have overlooked individual differences which could be a mediating factor - in that interactional synchrony differs according to attachment type.