Paper 3

Question 1

what is a laboratory experiment?

Answer 1

• quantitative research method
• an experiment that is conducted in a highly controlled setting and standardized procedure that accurately measures how changes in the IV affect the DV
• allows the researchers to control for extraneous & confounding variables (variables that may influence the results of the study)
• high internal validity, but low ecological validity

Question 2

what is a field experiment?

Answer 2

• quantitative research method
• an experiment that is conducted outside of the laboratory, in the “real world”
• difficult to control for extraneous variables, cannot be easily replicated, high ecological validity, reduces chances of demand characteristics interfering with the research/data, etc

Question 3

what is a quasi-experiment?

Answer 3

• quantitative research method
• an experiment where the participants are grouped together based on shared traits/characteristics/behaviours
• does not show direct causation but is able to imply causality between an IV and DV

Question 4

what is a natural experiment?

Answer 4

• quantitative research method
• an experiment where the IV is naturally occurring and out of the researcher’s control
• high ecological validity; results are more likely to be applicable and generalizable to other populations/real life situations

Question 5

what is correlation research?

Answer 5

• quantitative research method
• when an experiment cannot be conducted but data collected shows a relationship between two variables
• helps spot connections between variables without manipulating any
• when one variable changes, another does too
• positive correlation: when both variables are affected in the same way
• negative correlation: when one variable increases and the other decreases
• bidirectional ambiguity; since no IV is manipulated, it is impossible to know if x causes y or vice versa, if it is just coincidental, or if the results are actually due to a third variable

Question 6

what is an interview?

Answer 6

c
- structured conversation where participant(s) are asked a series of questions by the researcher

Question 7

what is a structured interview?

Answer 7

• the interview schedule states exactly what questions should be asked & and the order of the questions
• thus, the interview procedure is highly controlled
• very similar to questionnaires, but the interviewer asks the questions and may guide the participant
• data gathered in a structured interview is easy to analyze and compare with the data of other interviewees that have been asked the same questions
• highly standardized -> reasonable to have a large sample size
• may appear somewhat artificial as the interviewer is bound to the interview schedule
• quantitative research method

Question 8

what is an unstructured interview?

Answer 8

• the interview schedule only states the specific topic and the available time
• it is open to the interests and motivation of the interviewee/participant; they can reveal more about themselves compared to a structured interview
• results of an unstructured interview may be seen as more valid than those of a highly structured interview
• however, data may be difficult to analyze with a larger sample size

Question 9

what is a semi-structured interview?

Answer 9

• often preferred in modern psychology
• should look like an informal conversation; however it still follows an interview schedule
• involves a set of open-ended questions that permit the participant to answer more freely (while maintaining the focus of the interview)
• interviewers may also ask the participants additional questions if needed (ex. something of interest that should be explored in more detailed)

Question 10

what is a focus group interview?

Answer 10

• a group interview
• may feel much more natural than an one-on-one structured interview
• listening to others may spark ideas and encourage conversation
• saves time, as several people can be interviewed in a shorter period of time
• however, a strong voice in a focus group may intimidate the other participants -> others may not end up contributing
• may lead to conformity effects; people in the focus group may “blindly” follow the/agree with the ideas of somebody else

Question 11

what is an observation?

Answer 11

• a data collection method that aims to describe behaviour WITHOUT trying to establish causality/cause-and-effect relationships
• most observations take place in a natural setting (naturalistic observation)
• not possible to record everything in the observational field
• researcher bias; the observation should not be affected by what the researcher expects to find
• to counteract the potential problem of researcher bias, researcher triangulation can be used (multiple researchers observe the same behaviours -> compare the results of their conclusions -> consistent conclusions = high inter-observer validity)
• if the researchers’ notes do not produce similar data/conclusions, then the variables may have been poorly operationalized or the procedure has been poorly designed

Question 12

what is a naturalistic observation?

Answer 12

• observation that takes place inn the participants’ natural environment
• the researcher should NOT interfere with the participants’ naturally occurring behaviour
• to reduce reactivity, the researcher could spend some time with the participants before the observation begins

Question 13

a participant observation?

Answer 13

• an observation made where the researcher is part of the group being observed

Question 14

a non-participant observation?

Answer 14

• an observation made where the researcher is NOT part of the group being observed
• the researcher wants the participants to act like how they would normally, which can be very difficult due to reactivity

Question 15

covert vs overt observations?

Answer 15

• COVERT: the participants do not know that they are being observed by the researcher in order to ensure that they behave in natural ways
• OVERT: the participants are aware that there is a researcher observing them

Question 16

what is a survey?

Answer 16

• a way of collecting info from a large and dispersed group of people rather than a very small number (such as in interviews)
• may combine both qualitative and quantitative data
• surveys often used questionnaires with closed questions, as it makes the statistical analysis of the data much easier
• extremely efficient; provides large amounts of data at a relatively low cost in a short time frame

Question 17

what is a population?

Answer 17

• Any person who fits into a specific category and can be regarded as a member of a broader group from which samples are taken
• the group of individuals of interest

Question 18

what is a sample?

Answer 18

• A sample is a small portion of individual cases selected from the greater population

Question 19

population vs sample?

Answer 19

• The difference is that a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about
• A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from
• The size of the sample is always less than the total size of the population

Question 20

what is probability sampling?

Answer 20

• method of selecting participants where every individual has a known and equal chance of selection
• reduced bias, generalizable

Question 21

what is simple random sampling?

Answer 21

• probability sampling
• identifiers are used (such as numbers) and then participants are randomly selected

Question 22

what is stratified random sampling?

Answer 22

• probability sampling
• population is divided into different subgroups or “strata”, then a random sample is taken from each “stratum”

Question 23

what is systematic sampling?

Answer 23

• probability sampling
• involves selecting every nth individual from a list or sequence
• more precise, as the sample is chosen mathematically
• more time efficient than other methods
• even distribution

Question 24

what is cluster sampling?

Answer 24

• probability sampling
• the population is divided into groups/clusters, then a few whole clusters are randomly chosen to be included in the sample
• if the clusters are not the same, the sample may not be representative of the overall population
• may lead to less precise estimates compared to other methods such as stratified sampling

Question 25

what is non probability sampling?

Answer 25

• the sample is NOT randomly chosen from the population
• individuals are specifically chosen to be included in the sample
• each person does NOT have an equal chance of being selected

Question 26

what is opportunity/convenience sampling?

Answer 26

• non probability sampling, qualitative research
• a sampling technique where the participants are selected based on naturally occurring groups or participants that are easily available

Question 27

what is snowball sampling?

Answer 27

• non probability sampling, qualitative research
• a sampling technique that can be employed to quickly gather participants without investing a lot of time and energy
• the researcher simply asks the participants if they know any other potential participants
• snowball sampling may be useful for locating people with rare characteristics by having existing participants refer new participants
• cost-efficient, as the researcher does not have to use expensive/time consuming methods to gather participants
• major limitation: very difficult to avoid bias in the sample
• confidentiality concerns because the participants know each other

Question 28

what is purposive sampling?

Answer 28

• non probability sampling, qualitative research
• a sampling technique used to target a specific group of people
• the researcher decides early on which criteria should be used for the sampling
• the participants are chosen on the basis of particular characteristics that will help the researcher explore the research topic
• however, purposive sampling often suffers from sampling bias as the choice of the trait to investigate often leaves out important members of the population out of the research

Question 29

what is self-selected sampling?

Answer 29

• non probability sampling
• when participants willingly volunteer to participate, usually by responding to an advert or a request to take part in the study

Question 30

what is quota sampling?

Answer 30

• non probability sampling
• similar to a stratified sample, however there is no random selection of participants from the population
• ex. if your country is 40% x and 60% y, you would want your sample to have the same proportion (be 40% x and 60% y)

Question 31

what are some examples of sampling bias?

Answer 31

• self-selection bias: participants volunteer themselves for the study
• selection bias: choosing participants is not random
• undercoverage bias: all participants that are affected by the study are not in the study
• survivorship bias - participants chosen by a selection process
• exclusion bias - new and old participants are left out of the study

Question 32

what is CARDUD?

Answer 32

C - Informed Consent
A - Anonymity & Confidentiality
R - Right to withdraw
D - Debriefing
U - Undue stress and harm
D - Deception

Question 33

C - Informed Consent

Answer 33

• participants should be told the nature of the study and should willingly choose to participate
• the participants must be informed of all their rights, including the right to withdraw from the study at any time
• the participants should understand the potential risks and what the research is
• when the participant is unable to make an informed decision, a guardian may give consent for a family member

Question 34

A - Anonymity & Confidentiality

Answer 34

• the collected data from participants must not contain names and should not be able to be traced back to any individual
• identities of the participants will not be revealed in the publication of the study or used thereafter for anything else
• CONFIDENTIALITY = the research data will not be known to anyone outside the study, and the researcher may have to change minor details in the report to avoid the possibility of the participants being recognized, info is private but it is technically possible for the researcher to figure out a participant’s identity
• ANONYMITY = it is impossible for anyone, even the researcher, to connect a participant to their data, transcripts should be destroyed

Question 35

R - Right to withdraw

Answer 35

• participant should be informed at the beginning of the study of their right to withdraw at any time
• a participant willing to withdraw from the study should feel no pressure or coercion from the researcher to remain, and their data must be WITHDRAWN
• the right to withdraw should be INCLUDED with informed consent
• some researchers may place certain terms on withdrawal as it can have major repercussions for the researcher

Question 36

D - Deception

Answer 36

• In deception by commission, the researcher deliberately misleads the participants
• This may be done by using confederates or giving deceptive instructions
• Deception by omission is when a research does not mislead a participant but does not give the participant all the information about a study
• Researchers should avoid deceiving participants about the nature of the research unless there is no alternative
• Understanding the choice to use deception can be a little difficult
• APA ethics code states that a psychologist should not use deception unless the ends justify the means
• Deception can be used if the outcome of the study outweighs the potential harm of deceptive tactics
• No matter the outcome, deceptive research is no longer allowed when similar results can be found without deception or it “is reasonably expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional distress”
• If any deception is used, it must be revealed as soon as feasibly possible in the experimental process

Question 37

indirect vs direct deception?

Answer 37

DIRECT:
Direct deception is when participants are deliberately provided with misinformation about an experiment, including false instructions, staged situations, intentionally misleading feedback, or the use of exaggerations and minimization

INDIRECT:
Indirect deception occurs when participants agree to postpone full disclosure or the true purpose of the research or when the goals of the study are not conveyed to the participant to mislead them
(Think of it as lying by omission)

Question 38

advantages and disadvantages of deception?

Answer 38

ADVANTAGES:
- Deception allows researchers to obtain information they would normally be unable to find in a natural setting
- For example, an experiment could create an “emergency” situation using confederates that allows researchers to measure people’s reactions to that certain circumstance
- Deception in research provides the opportunity for real reactions to be measured
- If people are unaware of the goals of a study you are more likely to get an authentic response from participants
(rather than subjects reacting how they believe they are supposed to behave - expectancy effect)

DISADVANTAGES:
- Deception can lead to suspicion among participants, causing them to behave in a way that they normally would not
- Deception takes advantage of the trust of participants and creates a bad reputation for psychological research
- As a result, it can leave the subject pool biased by making it less likely that certain people will want to participate
- It can be argued that a participant, in order to give informed consent, must know the true objectives of a research study
- It is a matter of maintaining experimental integrity
- For these reasons, some may argue that any deception is unethical

Question 39

U - Undue stress and harm

Answer 39

• researchers must ensure that participants are protected from physical and mental harm
• the level of stress or risk of harm should be no greater than in daily life
• participants should not be humiliated or forced to reveal private info
• nothing done to the participants should have a permanent impact on their physical or psychological health
• research causing stress, anxiety, pain, discomfort, etc are examples of some lasting impacts
• undue stress = stress higher than what an individual may experience from day to day
• if studying stress, must do so ethically

Question 40

D - Debriefing

Answer 40

• After the research is over the researcher should discuss the procedure and the findings with the participants
• Participants must be told if they have been deceived and given reasons why
• The aim of the debriefing is not just to provide information, but to help the participant leave the experimental situation in a similar frame of mind as when he/she entered it
• The true aims and purposes of the research must be revealed to the participants
• Any deception must be revealed and justified
• The expectation is that participants will leave the study the same way they returned emotionally and physically
• Participants are informed of their role in the study
• In more severe cases, participants may require psychological counselling

Question 41

what is generalizability

Answer 41

• the extent to which a study’s finding scan be applied to other people int he yarghet population
• in ordser for a study to be high in generalizability it is important for the sample to be representative of the target population
• this means that all of the demographic characteristics of the target population should be included in the sample

In order to evaluate the generalizability of a study, discuss the following:
1. What is the target population of the study?
2. Describe the sample of the study. Who participated in the study? What sampling method was used?
3. Is the sample representative of the target population, or is the sample biased? To explain why, you could discuss the strengths and limitations of the sampling method

Question 42

what are the 3 levels of generalizability?

Answer 42

Representational
- Is the sample used in this study representative of the population from which it is drawn?
- Three key considerations are the sampling method, the participants’ characteristics, and the sample size

Inferential
- This is also called transferability
- Can we generalize the findings to another population?
- To determine this, we need to know how similar two populations are and how any differences may affect the original study’s findings

Theoretical
- Can we generalize the findings to another context?

Question 43

what is credibility?

Answer 43

Credibility
- Credibility corresponds roughly to the concept of internal validity that is used in quantitative research
- The credibility of research is established when the findings of the research reflect the meanings as they are described by the participants
- This can be established by the researcher giving the interpretation of an interview to the participant to read
- If the participant feels that the interpretation reflects what they said in the interview, then the research has credibility
- Qualitative researchers could also check whether their findings are credible by referring to other researchers’ interpretations of the data
- In the case of an interview, this means having other researchers also carry out an analysis of the interview
- If the interpretations are similar, then we can conclude that researcher bias may not play a significant role in the findings

Question 44

what are the 4 types of triangulation?

Answer 44

• Triangulation is a kind of cross-checking of information and conclusions in research
• It involves the use of different perspectives, methods, researchers, and sources of data to check if the interpretation of data can be supported
• Data triangulation is when a researcher collects data from different sources - hence, sometimes called source triangulation
• By using this strategy, you can confirm the findings of one set of data with another set of data
• For example, I interview a student about the way she interacts with others
  I then interview both her English teacher and her father
• This gives me different sources of information that I can then compare and confirm the statements made by the initial interview
• Method triangulation involves comparing data that come from the use of different methods
• This could involve qualitative and quantitative methods
• By using method triangulation, the researcher determines whether it was simply the choice of research method that led to the findings - or can we draw the same conclusions regardless of the research method?
• Researcher triangulation involves the use of several observers, interviewers, or researchers to compare and check data collection and interpretation
• Theory triangulation involves looking at the data using different theoretical approaches
  For example, a biological, psychological, and sociocultural approach
• According to some researchers, it is important in qualitative research to establish a set of strategies, which can increase confidence that research findings actually represent the meanings presented by the participant—that is, increase credibility. Triangulation can be one method used to do this.