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paper 3! Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what do exocrine glands do and give examples

A

-secrete molecules to either the surface of the body or the lumen (gut)
eg. salivary, gastric, intestinal and pancreatic

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2
Q

describe the structure of an exocrine gland?

A

contain secretory cells (create and secrete chemicals) connected to a duct ( allows chemicals to move to desired location)
-secretory cells are shaped based on function

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3
Q

what do nervous and hormonal mechanisms do?

A

control the secretion of pancreatic juices

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4
Q

what do nerves do and give example?

A

-are electrical messages via neuron’s eg. smelling food sends signal to stomach to release gastric juices

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5
Q

what are hormones and give example?

A

-chemical messages via molecules eg, food enters SI and pancreas secretes digestive chemicals (like bile) to neutralise stomach acids and break down fats

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6
Q

what do gastric glands do?

A

secrete H ions into the stomach, lowering the pH, making it more acidic
-allows it too digest food, activate stomach protease and destroy any potential pathogens ingested

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7
Q

what happens if there is a problem with gastric glands?

A

-too many H ions secreted out of proton pump so stomach is too acidic
-patients are prescribed with proton pump inhibitor drugs which bind to proton pump and block hydrogen ions being created

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8
Q

what is a consequence of the stomach being less acidic?

A

it is more prone to infection

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9
Q

what are stomach ulcers?

A

an inflamed and damaged area in the stomach wall due to bacteria infection by helicobacter pylori

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10
Q

how are stomach ulcers created?

A

-bacteria damages the cells responsible for creating protective mucus secretions, preventing the mucus layer being made
-this means the lining is exposed to the acid and the tissue is destroyed

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11
Q

what do villi do?

A

increase the surface area in the SI for absorption (are covered in microvilli)

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12
Q

what is fibre?

A

plant material that we can’t digest or absorb eg.cellulose

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13
Q

what does eating foods contain fibre do?

A

-slows down the digestive process as it gives food more time to be mixed w/ enzymes.
-This is healthier as it prevents the direct absorption of sugar molecules into the bloodstream

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14
Q

what is cholera?

A

-caused by bacteria- infects he intestines causing acute diahrea and dehydration in the body

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15
Q

how does cholera cause dehydration?

A

-the toxin is brought in by bacteria and increases the rate of cyclin AMP
-c AMP then activates specific ion channels letting molecules out of the membrane
-water inside and outside of the membrane becomes unbalanced creating a hypertonic solution so water moves out by osmosis

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16
Q

what are liver cells called

A

hepatocytes

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17
Q

describe the structure of the liver

A

-tissue of the liver is made up of lobules (consist of hepatocytes in large hexagonal structures)
-3 main structures surround the lobule: hepatic artery, bile duct and portal vein

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18
Q

what does the bile duct do?

A

carries bile to the gall bladder

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19
Q

describe the role of the liver in the movement of nutrients?

A

-both hepatic artery and portal vein move nutrients to the central vein in the lobule through a sinusoid
-the sinusoid membrane has large gaps in its structure so nutrients can be moved through/ processed in the liver
-once reached central vein blood is taken back to heart via the vena cava
-excess nutrients can also be stored in the liver (eg. excess sugar molecules as glycogen)

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20
Q

what is the function of the hepatic artery

A

carries oxygenated blood which is used to sustain the liver cells

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21
Q

function of the portal vein

A

carries blood from gut to the liver- blood is low in oxygen but high in absorbed nutrients from SI
-this allows for the liver to regulate nutrient levels

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22
Q

how does the liver regulate cholesterol levels

A

excess cholesterol is moved from cells by HDL to the liver
-in the liver its converted to bile salts for elimination

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23
Q

how does detoxification take place in the liver?

A

-toxins are converted to less harmful components via oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis reactions
-are then attached to other substances to make is water soluble, which is easily excreted from the body

24
Q

what are plasma proteins and what do they do

A

-are found in the blood and produced in hepatocytes (by the rough ER and exported by Golgi apparatus)
-there are many different types w/ different functions eg. fibrinogen- used in blood clotting

25
Q

what are RBC also known as

A

erythrocytes

26
Q

what are kupffer cells and what do they do?

A

-specialised cells in the lining of the sinusoid in the liver, used to recycle red blood cells
-breakdown haemoglobin into global and heme groups
-globin is digested by peptidases to produce amino acids (are then recycled by the liver)
-heme groups broken down into iron (transported to bone marrow) and bilirubin

27
Q

what is bilirubin and what can an excess of it do?

A

-is a bile pigment
-excess can leak into other surrounding tissues in fluids causing jaundice
(excess can occur thru liver disease, gallbladder obstruction or increased destruction of RBC)

28
Q

what are the symptoms of jaundice

A

-itchiness
-pale stools
-dark urine
-yellow discolouration of skin and eye whites

29
Q

what is malnutrition caused by?

A

a deficiency, imbalance or excess of nutrients

30
Q

what are conditional amino acids?

A

-not essential but become essential in certain conditions like pregnancy eg. arganine, glutamine

31
Q

what is phenlketonuria (PKU)

A

genetic condition that mutates the phenylalanine hydroxylase enzymes so they don’t function properly (are used to breakdown phenylalaline)

32
Q

what is the consequence of PKU and how can it be treated?

A

-caused toxic build up of phenylalanine in the blood and urine leading to brain damage
-treated with strict diet restricting consumption of the amino acid preventing a large build up

33
Q

name the essential fatty acids and why can’t they be made

A

-omega 3 and omega 6
-body lacks proper enzymes to create the double bonds at required positions

34
Q

what happens to cholesterol and fat molecules when consumed in the diet?

A

-cant be broken down in bloodstream so packaged into lipoproteins (HDL or LDL) so they can be transported
-HDL- carry excess cholesterol back to the liver for disposal lowering blood cholesterol levels
-LDL- carry cholesterol from liver to the body, raising blood cholesterol

35
Q

what foods is cholesterol high in and what are the consequences of a lot of it?

A

-by eating foods high in saturated and trans fats
-can lead to plaque build up in arteries, blocking blood flow causing heart attack

36
Q

lack of vitamin c?

A

-leads to scurvy (loose teeth and bleeding gums)

37
Q

lack of vitamin D

A

-leads to rickets (misshaped bones)

38
Q

what are minerals

A

essential chemical elements the body needs to function properly

39
Q

describe how hormones control appetite

A

-hypothalamus-recieves signals from leptin and ghrelin
-leptin decreases hunger levels telling brain to stop eating when full
-ghrelin increases hunger levels when body needs food

40
Q

what are the consequences of changes in hormones relating to appetite

A

-can lead to over/under eating
-over eating-lead to obesity causes hypertension and type 2 diabetes
-undereating-starvation and anorexia- heart muscle begins to breakdown due to lack of nutrients-heart arrhythmias

41
Q

what is hypertension

A

when the heart pumps harder because blood flow is restricted in the vessels

42
Q

what does the unique structure of cardiac muscle cells do

A

allows for the propagation of stimuli through the heart wall

43
Q

describe how the structure of the heart allows the muscles to contract and the heart to beat?

A

-cardiac muscle cells create heavy branched tissue which has inter calculated discs between them
-these discs separate cardiac muscle cells and create space for action potential ions to be transferred between cells, depolarising the next cell (caused by signals from the SA node)
-this helps generate action potential for the muscles in the heart to contract and creates a heart beat
-these cells also contain a large amount of mitochondria, allowing them to always keep the heart beating

44
Q

what are inter calculated discs made up of

A

gap junctions and desmosomes

45
Q

describe the passage of signals from the SA node and the purpose pf this

A

-pass across muscle cells to atria first and then ventricles by the AV node
-this allows time for the atria to contract before ventricles allowing for proper blood flow through heart chambers

46
Q

what do conduction fibres do?

A

-they line the tissue of the heart to ensure that muscles are contracting at the correct time

47
Q

what is an electrocardiograph used for?

A

to measure heart electricity by showing the different stages of electricity in the heart while beating
-used to see if someone has an irregular heartbeat by comparing it to a standard graph

48
Q

describe what the 3 parts of an electrocardiograph show?

A

p wave- depolarisation of atria in response to signals from SA node
QRS complex- depolarisation of ventricles from AV node
T wave- repolarisation of ventricles

49
Q

what are heart sounds caused by?

A

the AV and semilunar valves closing

50
Q

what is thrombosis and what is it caused by?

A

-the formation of a clot within a blood vessel
-occurs from cholesterol deposits building up in vessels (atherosclerosis)

51
Q

what is the consequences of thrombosis?

A

-reduces size of lumen making it hard for blood to move through
-increases pressure inside the arteries as blood cells are forced to move thru a narrower space causing hypertension

52
Q

what is a pacemaker

A

an electrical device that artificially controls the beating of the heart

53
Q

how does a pacemaker work

A

electric wires are implanted, helping the heart cells to depolarise at the correct time
-this regulates heart rate ensuring blood flow and oxygen intake are sufficient

54
Q

what is the purpose of a defibrillator

A

-used when someones heart stops beating
-aims to reset the electricity in the heart to get it beating again

55
Q

how does a defibrillator work

A

-2 pads are placed on the thoracic cavity which is aligned with the heart
-the machine sends an electrical impulse through the body and heart, shocking the heart into a normal rhythm

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