Paper 2 - Section B - Health, Human Rights And Intervention Flashcards
1
Q
Define development
A
The ways in which a country seeks to develop economically and to improve the standard of living for its inhabitants (implies progress is being made)
2
Q
List the 4 indicators than can be used to measure development
A
- Economic indicators (GDP)
- Composite indicators (HDI); GNI pc, education, life expectancy
- **Gender inequality index (GII); reproductive health, empowerment
- **Environmental quality (EPI, AQI); air quality, sanitation, pollution
3
Q
List some benefits and drawbacks of using GDP to measure development
A
Benefits:
- economic growth drives other types of development
- advances in health and life expectancy can only be delivered by economic growth
Drawbacks:
- the modern concept of development focusses on improving well being and abilities
- GDP gives crude average (skews income distribution)
- the informal economy is not included in GDP
- countries may have similar GDP yet still have disparities i.e noticeable difference in life expectancy
4
Q
What is the happy planet index?
A
It combines 4 elements to show how efficiently residents of different countries are using environmental resources to lead long, happy lives.
It also includes sustainability, satisfaction and health
5
Q
What is the formula for he happy planet index (HPI)?
A
Well X Life X Inequality
being Expectancy Of outcomes
——————————————————
Ecological footprint
6
Q
Are higher or lower HPI values indicative of high levels of development?
A
Countries with the highest values are usually considered to be emerging. Do they balance human development with environmental management?
7
Q
What are complex indices used for development?
A
They measure more than one factor:
- happy planet index
- KOF index of globalisation
- world happiness index
8
Q
Why might countries like USA, New Zealand, Japan and Ireland have high HDI rankings?
A
- these nations have large economies with advancing quaternary industries
- cities and towns have good infrastructure
- most of them have free education systems
9
Q
Why might literacy rates be an unreliable method of measuring development?
A
Because countries measure this themselves and so could be biased / skewed in order to make the country look successful
10
Q
Who is Rosling and what are his views on development?
A
Rosling is a lead statistician from Sweden who believes health and life expectancy directly correlates with a country’s development.
He argued human rights are essential to economic growth, and that these cannot exist without a good government
> will boost economic potential
11
Q
What are welfare systems that governments use to support those in need (which in turn contribute to high indicator values)?
A
provides:
- Free education, usually from age 4 or 5 to 16 or 18
- Health services, which are free in some cases
- Benefits such as a basic income, housing and social services to those in need
12
Q
What is the Sharia Law / where did it originate from?
A
The law of islam:
Derived from actions of the prophet Muhammad, and the words he expressed in the Qur’an
Muslims lives get governed by the Sharia — covers behaviour / beliefs which potentially violate human rights
13
Q
What are the 5 necessities of Sharia Law?
A
- preservation of religion
- life
- intellect
- lineage
- wealth
14
Q
Why does the sharia law get contested? (Think human rights abuses)
A
- theft is punishable by the amputation of the right hand
- converting from Islam is punishable by death
- a man can beat his wife for disobeying him
- a woman cannot speak alone to a man who is not her husband or relative
15
Q
What was rule under Evo Morales (Bolivia) like?
A
- he won an unprecedented third term in office in 2014
- taxes had been raised on the profits of oil TNC’s to over 80% for reinvestment in health, education etc
- lifted 500,000 Bolivians out of poverty
> extreme poverty fallen by 43% - Bolivia is still one of the poorest Latin American countries
16
Q
Why is education important for development?
A
- Increased skills
> more people in better jobs
> improved economy - reduces youth unemployment
- competitive workforce globally
- higher skilled doctors etc
- greater awareness about contraception, diets and sanitation
17
Q
What factors may cause unfair access to education globally?
A
- higher wealth allows flexibility to move to areas with better schools + private education, tutoring etc
- boys may be subject to more pressure from their parents to choose academic subjects
- better schools have smaller class sizes — more beneficial learning
- lack of specialist facilities for disabled students in developing countries
18
Q
What are human rights?
A
the rights people are entitled to simply for being human: they often include freedom, equality, the right to a fair trial, the right to education and a certain standard of living.
19
Q
How many children of primary school age still don’t have access to education globally?
A
60 million — 32 million from Sub-Saharan Africa
20
Q
What do rates of education vary?
A
- children work on farms / factories instead
- conflict / war zones
- child marriage — 38% of sub-Saharan Africa girls are married before 18
- lack of trained teachers
- culture / religion — girls may need to stay home
- periods — poor country girls can’t afford sanitary products: in India 1 in 5 girls drop out after their period starts
21
Q
Define life expectancy
A
Age someone is expected to live to
22
Q
Define mortality rate
A
Number of people dying
23
Q
Why are maternal mortality and infant mortality rates important?
A
Infants and pregnant women are at their most vulnerable — mortality rates are important to show the measure of human + social development + responsiveness of healthcare systems
24
Q
Why might human health and life expectancy vary?
A
- access to healthy food
- environmental quality
- information provisions about healthy eating, not smoking etc
- sanitation
- air / water quality
- safety conditions
- access to drugs / healthcare
- stress factors
- housing quality
- vaccinations
25
Why is health important for human development?
- illness reduces people’s capacity to work, meaning they earn less
- family members have to take time off work to care for sick family
- medical costs use up income which could have been spent in the economy
26
How does life expectancy for men in north and south of UK differ?
National average is 79.5 for men
Manchester: 71
Harrow, London: 86.1
Glasgow: 65
27
Why is life expectancy for men typically lower in northern areas?
In deprived, post industrialisation cities male unemployment is high, incomes are low and smoking / poor diets are common
> cheap, processed food is consumed more than down south which gives people diseases
28
How do ethnic variations affect health / life expectancy? (Think aboriginals in Australia)
Australians with European ancestry typically live 20 years longer than aboriginal people
29
Why is life expectancy for aboriginals typically lower than other urban Australian areas?
Many Australian aborigines live in isolated, rural areas and have low paid jobs — QoL is ranked 2nd worst in the world for them
> alcohol and drug consumption is high
> healthcare is basic
> poor housing
> obesity
> unemployment
> low education
30
What is a socialist government?
Welfare state funded by taxpayers. High spending on social justice I.e healthcare, education
I.e Norway
31
What is a capitalist government
Committed to economic development with spending in favour of industrial and business infrastructure
I.e USA
32
What is a democratic government?
Voted for so social progress needs to be taken into account
33
What is a totalitarian government?
Leadership does not need to worry about attitudes of people so pursue their own objectives
34
What is the idea of social progress?
That a country improves in terms of their social, political and economic structures.
> govs play a huge role with the policies they use — typically either focus on human development or prioritise other things instead
35
What is needed in order for social progress to occur?
Govs need to find a balance on how to spend its GDP to improve the country as a whole, whilst focusing on the specifics to them
I.e Japan spends more on healthcare rather than education because of their ageing population
36
What does the social progress index (SPI) attempt to quantify, and what three factors is it based upon?
Attempts to quantify how well governments provide for their people. It is based on 3 factors:
1. **Basic human needs** — nutrition, medical care etc
2. **Foundations of well-being** — education, access to internet etc
3. **Opportunity** — personal rights, political freedom etc
37
How can social progress be accelerated?
- **gov intervention**
- **social enterprise**
- **social activism**
38
What is Australian governments ‘close the gap’ campaign?
A campaign with aims to implement a human rights-based approach in order to close the health and life expectancy gap between aboriginal and non indigenous Australians within a generation
39
Are totalitarian or socialist states more likely to have higher SPI rankings?
Socialist states i.e France have higher SPI’s, as there is more spending on welfare provision
40
What are neo-liberal views in favour of? (Think capitalism)
- reduced state intervention
- free market capitalism
- freedom for private businesses to trade and earn profits
- promoting free trade between countries with few barriers
- deregulating the free market
- privatising state assets
41
What is the belief that neo-liberal objectives will achieve?
That they will aid development as private wealth will ‘trickle down’, and that the poorest will eventually benefit from a strengthened economy
42
What programmes do IGO’s promote?
- structural adjustment
- intervening in the policies of individual governments
43
What are some main concerns over neo-liberalism policies?
That neo-liberalism:
- benefits businesses and TNC’s far more than ordinary people and so creates inequality i.e a growing gap between rich and poor
- focusses on industrialisation, trade and jobs that tend to concentrate in cities, so rural areas miss out on growth
- focusses on profit and economic growth at the expense of the environment
44
List the main 3 IGO’s
1. World bank
2. International Monetary Fund
3. World Trade Organisation
45
How is the World Bank helping education globally?
- helps countries set up early reading assessment systems
- focus is on the poorest and most disadvantaged children
- more recent work has focussed on secondary education
- invested over $35 million into educational programmes
46
How is the World Bank helping the environment globally?
- launched the climate change action plan in 2016
- aims to help developing countries i.e India to add renewable energy
- aims to provide flood warning systems and invest in agriculture
- part of a strategy to end poverty
47
How has the IMF helped globally in reducing poverty?
- ‘poverty reduction programme’
- countries now required to develop their own medium-term development plans to receive aid, loans and debt relief
- currently working with Haitian Gov to make their economy more resilient
48
How has the WTO helped globally in preserving the environment?
- restricting international movement of products or species that are potentially harmful or endangered
- challenge trade agreements where there may be implications for climate change
49
What do BINGO’s mean / stand for?
**Big. International. Non-Governmental. Organisations** who raise funds worldwide and assist people in many countries at the same time
50
What was the 2007-2008 debt crisis all about?
A global debt crisis arose largely from the USA and European-mortgage-lending markets
> traditionally, funding for mortgages came from savings but in 2007 it was from sub-prime lending (risky), meaning anyone could get a mortgage — BUBBLE EVENTUALLY BURST
51
What are structural adjustment plans?
A series of conditions that force a state to play a part in boosting social + economic welfare
I.e privatisation of state energy or water companies
52
What are Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) + their aims?
Rain from 2000-2015, aiming to improve the lives of people living in developing countries through global response.
Consisted of 8 goals and subsidiary targets:
1. To halve the proportion of people living on less than $1.25 per day
2. To halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger
3. By 2015, all children can complete a full course of primary schooling, girls and boys
4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education
5. Reduce by 2/3 under 5’s mortality rate
6. Reduce by 3/4 the maternal mortality ratio
53
How successful had the MDGs been?
- health target prevented 20 million deaths
- infant mortality in sub-Saharan Africa fell by 53%
- numbers of those living in extreme poverty fell be 54%
- primary school enrolment increased from 83-91%
- parliamentary representation of women increased in nearly 90% of counties
- improved access to sanitation for 2.1 billion
54
What have been some drawbacks of the MDGs?
- gender inequality not improved as much as hoped
- conflict in counties I.e Yemen, Somalia has set progress back
- the poorest and those disadvantaged were not benefited
- by 2015, 800 million still live in extreme poverty
55
What are Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)?
These replaced the MDGs for the period 2015-2030: 17 global goals that apply to ALL countries (not just developing ones)
They include:
- clean energy — renewable, low carbon
- decent work — avoiding exploitation
- sustainable cities — for more than 50% of the worlds population living in urban areas
- protecting oceans and ecosystems
56
What are some drawbacks of SDGs?
- not legally binding
- govs are expected to take ownership
57
What is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights?
Signed in 1948 with aims to provide a common understanding of the rights we all have
- lists 30 articles that define basic human rights
- signed by 48 countries
58
How does the Universal Declaration of Human Rights promote human rights?
- Articles state the rights ought to be protected by law
- educates the population about their rights
- places political pressure on countries seen to be denying rights
- used as a justification for economic sanctions against countries
- used as justification for military intervention in foreign countries seen to be committing genocide or widespread abuse
59
What controversies are associated with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights?
Not all countries have signed the UDHR (not legally binding) I.e South Africa, Saudi Arabia in order to protect their fascism, no rights for women, apartheid etc
60
is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights effective in promoting human rights?
The declaration has since been the basis for 2 further legally binding agreements
> therefore it has been effective for some but not for excluded populations
61
What is the European Convention on Human Rights?
Founded in 1949 to establish better relationships between European countries after WW2 — 47 countries including all EU members
- treaty to protect human rights
> included within national law
62
How does the European Convention on Human Rights promote Human rights?
It allows Europeans to lead free and dignified lives
- right to live
- prohibition of slavery / torture
- right to a fair trial
- freedom of expression
63
What the controversies associated with European Convention on Human Rights?
Some ‘rights’ can be questioned:
- arguable that ECHR is undemocratic as it threatens British sovereignty and self determination
- can be criticised as being a ‘western’ concept since WW2 which doesn’t apply to Islam states etc
64
is the European Convention on Human Rights effective at promoting human rights?
Since the UK left the EU in 2016, it revamped ECHR into its own ‘British Bill of Rights and Responsibilities’
> meaning ECHR won’t be able to overrule the British court judgement I.e. different age of consent for gays
65
What is the Geneva Convention?
Established on 1864 following the need for humanitarian protection arising from weapons and tech
- originally concerned with soldiers, but after WW2 it covers anyone who gets caught up in the conflict
66
How does the Geneva Convention promote human rights?
It covers ‘the rules of war’ and has helped to define war crimes:
- wounded and sick soldiers should be evacuated from the field of battle and given medical treatment, even by the enemy side
- prisoners should be well treated, not used for forced labour and hostages shouldn’t be taken
- civilians should be protected in conquered areas
Those accused of war crimes can be tried at the international criminal court in The Hague, the Netherlands
67
What are some controversies associated with the Geneva Convention?
Few cases of violations of this act ever make it to trial
> in 2014, it was shown that 141 countries still use methods of torture including the USA
- gathering evidence is very difficult
- not all states agree with it so bringing war criminals to trial is hard
68
Is the Geneva Convention effective at promoting human rights?
196 countries have signed up to this convention, however war crimes are still committed i.e Russia in Ukraine
69
What is the UK’s 1998 Human Rights Act?
Came into force in the UK in 2000 with 3 areas of focus
- let’s you defend your rights in UK courts and compels public organisations i.e police, NHS etc
70
How does the UK’s 1998 Human Rights Act promote human rights?
It provides a legal framework to protect the rights of individuals and advance equality / opportunity for all
> discrimination law
71
What controversies are associated with the UK’s 1998 Human Rights Act?
The act protects terrorists and have preachers who have committed injustice.
There may also be issues with its operationalisation and negative consequences of its operationalisation
72
How effective has the UK’s 1998 Human Rights Act been at promoting human rights?
It has proved an essential tool for women challenging the police when they fail in violence and trafficking investigations
73
Which countries are typically seen to be at the forefront for human rights?
- Scandinavian countries
- UK
- France
- Canada
74
Which countries are typically seen to be neutral? (Hence chosen to host international agreements for human rights)
- Switzerland
- Australia
- Norway
- Austria
- Ireland
Diplomats from here are often involved in negotiating agreements and settling disputes
75
Which countries are typically seen to prioritise economic growth over human rights? (Argue that human rights bring costs and don’t provide economic benefit)
- China
- Malaysia
- Mexico
- Middle East
76
How do North and South Korea differ? (Human rights issues, pro economic development, Gov, why they’re so different)
1. **Human Rights issues**
North Korea:
- no freedom of speech
- no internet / communications
- executing foreigners
South Korea
- first election wasn’t held until 1987
- ranked first in Asia for democracy
2. **Pro Economic Development?**
North Korea:
- nuclear weapons
- military accounts for lots of GDP
South Korea:
- capitalists
- high income
- advanced economy
3. **Government**
North Korea:
- totalitarian state
- dictatorship
- cult political party
South Korea:
- increasing power
- capitalist
4. **Why are they so different?**
North Korea:
- highly corrupt
- self isolation
South Korea:
- not corrupt
- more globalisation
77
Why is the USA keen to tackle human rights abuses in many countries?
- maintain superpower status
- prevent spread of eastern or religious ideologies
78
Compare the political systems in India and China
**China — authoritarian**
Modern China was founded as a communist country with a one-party government following WW2
> economic reforms introduced in 1978: ‘socialist market economy’
**India — democratic**
India is a democratic republic with a parliamentary system of government
> general election in 2014: changed Gov
> still has human rights issues however
79
What are some examples of political corruption / judiciary corruption?
- allowing private interest dictate Gov policy i.e interests from TNC’s and big businesses
- taking decisions that benefit those who are funding politicians
- diverting foreign aid and scarce resources into politicians pockets
- appointing of judges can be influenced by politicians
- judges can be bribed to dismiss legal legitimate human rights abuse cases
80
Define judiciary
The judicial authorities of a country; judges collectivelt
81
Why does corruption threaten human rights?
- systems become unfair and support groups with power
- systems persecute poor and disadvantaged groups
- corruption allows human rights abuses to become widespread and ignored
82
What index measures corruption?
Transparency Internationals Corruption Perception Index (CPI)
83
List some corrupt countries
- Brazil
- North Korea
- Myanmar
- Zimbabwe
84
Why are human rights within sovereign states (especially post-colonial ones) problematic?
- human rights had almost no role in colonial governance
> little history of respecting such rights
- post-colonial poverty led to a focus on economic growth and basic needs (but not human rights)
- post-colonial national borders rarely reflected the geography of nations of people, meaning many countries contained religious / ethnic groups that were ignored or persecuted
85
What issues have gotten caused by colonial powers drawing up arbitrary borders (quite literally with a ruler!)
It displaces people who are separated by new borders
> many borders were created without consideration of ethnic or traditional boundaries — leads to tension
86
What evidence is there of gender inequality in the UK?
- women get paid less (£460.50 vs £444.40 — median weekly earnings 2014)
- more men are employed (71.4% vs 62.9% in 2013)
- women do however have a higher life expectancy (82.3 vs 78.0 in 2011-13)
87
What is development aid?
Financial aid given to countries to support their long term economic, political, social and environmental development
> aims to improve QoL
88
What are the positives of development aid?
- projects that are supported by development aid create more jobs
- infrastructure will improve
- helps countries meet sustainable development goal targets
89
What are the negatives of development aid?
- may cause some nations to become dependent on aid
- neglect of domestic (host country needs) I.e poverty
- favouritism towards particular countries
90
Is development aid valid?
Not all countries would be suitable to donate a proportion of their GNI on ODA because they have larger, domestic issues to deal with first
91
What are trade embargoes?
Gov or international bans which restrict trade with a particular country
> can prohibit all trade or simply ban the trade of certain items I.e weapons
92
What are the positives of trade embargoes?
- used in response to perceived threats to international security
- forces an end to human rights abuses
- 1980’s: UN imposed embargo of oil and military supplies to South Africa
93
What are the negatives of trade embargoes?
- businesses that are subjected to embargoes may be threatened
- civilians are restricted from necessities
94
Are trade embargoes valid?
It is valid when used to suppress aggressors I.e UK + USA vs Russia over the Ukraine war to reduce exports to cripple their GDP
> makes it harder for Russia to fund a war with diminished GDP
95
What is military aid?
Consists of money, weapons, equipment or expertise in terms of training or peacekeeping forces, given to countries to help them protect borders etc
96
What is positive about military aid?
- terrorist groups are suppressed by superpowers i.e UK, USA
> USA covers military air over 150 countries
> UK funding against Syrian rebels
97
What is negative about military aid?
- OECD argued that tackling violent extremism was a development activity
> 90%+ militant attacks occur in countries with weak govs
- charities worry less will be spent on poverty reduction
98
Is military aid valid?
Military aid plays a key role in building alliances between nations
> during a time of increasing distribution of power (multipolar world), it is important to establish support and dominance
99
What is military action?
2 forms:
- **Direct Action** I.e air strikes or troops on the ground
- **Indirect Action** I.e proving military and political assistance
100
What is positive about military action?
- arguably protects civilians
- defends home land
- can be used by superpowers to support developing nations during proxy wars
101
What is negative about military action?
- rarely creates lasting peace
- more lives can be lost
- expensive
- politically divisive
- can have ulterior motives
102
Is military action valid?
People may not be in favour of this ‘hard power’ as corrupt Govs may use this military action to abuse human rights
103
Outline the legal case for geopolitical intervention
international law typically prohibits sovereign states intervening, however it can take place if:
- if the state being intervened in has committed an act of aggression on another sovereign state
> the UN Security Council can authorise intervention if all 5 permanent members agree
104
Name the 2 NGO’s that campaign solely on human rights
1. **Amnesty International;**
- Founded in 1961
- headquarters in london
- mass membership organisation funded by members and supporters, that promotes direct action such as protests, letter writing and campaigning
2. **Human Rights Watch;**
- founded in 1978
- headquarters in New York
- largely funded by wealthy individuals, it puts pressure on Govs to take action and intervene
105
Why is intervention sometimes difficult to follow through with?
- lack of widespread agreement for intervening
- NGO’s have little power to intervene, unless they’re invited to by a sovereign state
- the UN has no military forces of its own
- physical geography — dense jungle, lack of airstrips etc
- geopolitical considerations I.e the risk of wider conflict if one were to intervene
106
What might be some motives for geopolitical intervention?
- offering development aid to least developed countries
- protecting human rights
- encouraging health and education
- strengthening security and stability
- protecting international trade routes
- providing military support
- accessing resources
- encouraging inward investment
- increasing global influence
107
What is the ‘Responsibility to Protect Principle’? (R2P)
An emerging international security and human rights norm which seeks to enhance the states ability to protect civilians against:
1. Genocide
2. Crimes against humanity
3. Ethnic cleansing
4. War crimes
108
What is at the heart of the R2P?
If a state can’t protect its people it is down to someone else to do it I.e USA
109
When was the R2P used to validate intervention?
- Bosnia & Kosovo: despite delayed intervention, it resulted in a positive outcome
110
When have interventions not taken place although there is an international responsibility to protect?
Syria: there are concerns about what will happen if USA intervenes
> Vietnam proxy war ruined American psyche during Cold War
111
How does the UN interpret the principle of national sovereignty?
In theory you shouldn’t intervene in other country’s unless jeopardy caused people who need protecting
112
What makes the international community reluctant to intervene?
More citizens have gotten killed as a result of intervention rather than prevention: they’re worried about whether the previous war went well
113
What has been suggested that is an important aspect of increasing the legitimacy of the international community?
Clarity: reducing vagueness so it isn’t open to interpretation by countries
114
What are the main principles of NGO’s?
They assist whenever is needed to protect the environment, increase education, combat HIV, develop global partnerships, foster creativity etc
115
Why is neutrality important for NGO’s?
- to help anyone who is in need — no sides are taken
- to have public protection: not a target of either side
- to help get people where they are needed: humanitarian access when crossing through war zones erc
116
List some of the rules of NGO’s
- put people first
- no politics
- independent
- don’t use aid to further politics, religion etc
- relies on the respect of people
- no guns
- don’t divulge information
117
What is sovereignty?
The legal right to govern a physical territory — has 4 aspects:
1. A Gov, organised within a territory has authority over that territory
2. The Gov controls the movement of people and goods across the territories borders
3. The Gov and territory is recognised by other Govs
4. Other organisations, outside that territory, do not have higher authority
118
In what 2 ways do western Govs intervene (indirectly) in the affairs of other sovereign states?
They use economic levers to apply pressure (2 ways):
1. Offering aid to help economic and social development, but attaching ‘conditions’ that seek to improve some aspect of human rights
2. Negotiating trade agreements I.e lower import tariffs, on the condition that human rights are improved
119
In what ways can western intervention into sovereign states be seen (+ve and -ve)
**Positive**
‘Ethical foreign policy’ i.e using the power of trade and aid to improve the lives of people in developing countries by strengthening their human rights
**Negative**
An interference in sovereign affairs, by effectively forcing the country to change internal policy in order to gain a benefit from another country
120
Define bilateral aid
Given from one country to another, either as cash grants, loans, or technical or military equipment
121
Define multilateral aid
Given from an IGO such as the world bank. Often involves loans, which have to be repaid
122
Define aid from NGO’s
Provided by charities such as Oxfam and Christian Aid, funded by donations from ordinary people
123
Define emergency aid
Short term aid, designed to cope with a natural disaster i.e earthquake or epidemic (often from NGO’s or Gov)
124
Define tied aid
Bilateral aid where something is expected in return
125
Which countries did Britain spend most of its aid on in 2019?
1. Pakistan — £305 million
2. Ethiopia — £300 million
3. Afghanistan — £292 million
4. Yemen — £260 million
5. Nigeria — £258 million
126
How does UK compare to other countries on aid spending (as percentage of gross national income 2020)?
1. Germany — 0.73%
2. UK — 0.7%
3. France — 0.53%
4. Japan — 0.31%
5. Canada — 0.31%
6. Italy — 0.22%
7. USA — 0.17%
127
What are some motives for giving aid?
- a genuine desire to improve human rights and human welfare
- political ties — providing aid to ex colonies out of guilt
- as a way to gain economic access to more trade deals etc
- as a way to strengthen political alliances
128
List some arguments against development aid
- it can cause aid dependency
- it gets stolen by corrupt Gov officials who just use it to further their own aims
- some of it gets lost to bribery
- it reduces innovation, and entrepreneurship
129
What are some of the successes of aid?
1. Global vaccination programmes i.e smallpox eradicated in 1977
2. Tackling malaria i.e since 2005 new cases are down by 25%
3. Women’s Education i.e globally, more women are in work, more involved in politics than in 2000 etc
130
Which players obtain raw materials (primary sector) in LIC’s?
1. **TNC’s** — like oil and gas companies I.e She’ll, ExxonMobil
2. **Gov owned companies** and agencies of developing countries
3. **Sovereign wealth funds** from developed and emerging economies
131
What are the downsides of drilling for oil, forestry and commercial farming?
- pollution I.e oil drilling spills and polluted water from mining
- deforestation from forestry
- disregard for the land rights of local and indigenous people
132
What is land grabbing?
The acquisition of large levels of land (often by fraud or force): the name given to this irregular privatisation of public land
133
Why did land grabbing start in Kenya?
Started by president moi during 1978-2002 as a resource to use as bribes
134
What impacts does land grabbing have on the Kenya?
- serious impacts on public financing
- development opportunities
- serious impacts on land pricing
135
Why do the west feel a need to intervene?
To protect the interests of western powers:
- a need to protect strategic resources I.e oil supply (especially from the Middle East)
- the need to protect shipping routes for oil, gas and other goods I.e Suez Canal — if these were to be controlled by hostile countries it could have large economic consequences
- the need to prevent wider conflict destabilising whole regions: NATO intervention in Bosnia 1992 was to partly prevent the Bosnian war spilling into other European countries
136
What where the pros and cons of the Iraq war?
**Pros**
- increase in healthcare spending
> decreased maternal / infant mortality
**Cons**
- encouraged more terrorists — Jihad
- USA troops accidentally shot allies in error
- no record of genocide
137
What are some motives for countries wishing to provide military aid?
- the country’s location has a strategic value in a wider power struggle
- to deal with the incursions that threatens a county’s stability and allegiance
- to ensure access to valuable resources
138
Why may countries give military aid to countries with questionable human rights records?
- For strategic alliances and / or valuable trade deals
I.e EU gives aid to Colombia
- it may help to maintain peace
I.e with the Middle East
- may reduce terrorism risk
139
What does ‘war on terror’ coined by US President George Bush mean?
A war against Islamic extremism and the groups that support it including
- Al-Qaeda
- Afghan Taliban
- boko haram in Nigeria
- Islamic state in Syria and Iraq
Following 9/11 attack
140
What have been some western-led direct military intervention in Islamist states since 9/11?
- drone strikes in Pakistan, Afghan, Yemen etc
- 2003 invasion of Iraq
- conflict in afghan from 2001
- air strikes and special forces operations in Syria and Iraq against IS
141
What difficult questions get raised regarding War on Terror to the UN UDHR?
1. To what extent do people in Muslim countries want their human rights protected by western countries
2. To what extent are the actions of western counties undermine by their own attitude towards the UDHR
3. To what extent does War on Terror risk a permanent culture divide?
142
Define torture
Any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on someone to get information
143
Define rendition
The secret transfer of a terror suspect, without a legal process to a foreign government for detention and interrogation — often doesn’t meet international standards / law as it involves torture
144
List some benefits and costs of rendition
**Benefits:**
- rendition is a speedy way to get info
**Costs:**
- inhumane
- worry about authenticity of info given
- damage to USA reputation (can’t now take the moral high ground)
- UK reputation tarnished for facilitating
145
Why are people often uneasy about geopolitical interventions?
They are often politically sensitive and expensive
146
Why should the success of geopolitical interventions be measured?
Because there may be public unease with overseas interventions
I.e 51% of Americans surveyed in 2016 said they felt the USA gives too much aid: it’s important to show that these interventions work
147
What is HARD DATA?
What is used to assess interventions
I.e
- health (life expectancy, infant mortality)
- education (literacy, length of schooling)
- wealth (GDP per capita)
148
What is easier to measure, human development or human rights?
Human development is easier to quantify than human rights.
HR indicators are more qualitative
149
What conclusions can we draw from geopolitical interventions?
- improvements have been made in gender equality, life expectancy, health and education
- freedom of speech declined
- very mixed improvements in wealth
150
Why does it remain difficult to measure the success of geopolitical interventions?
- there may not be agreement about how success is measured
- some countries cannot monitor or collect accurate data
- if interventions are long term I.e MDG’s they’re subject to changing Govs and global conditions
- external factors I.e changing oil prices and climate change can influence outcomes
- data collected can be interpreted differently by different people
151
How else could the success of geopolitical interventions be measured?
- democratic elections
- respect for ethnic minority groups
- movement of refugees
152
What are democratic institutions based on?
The concepts of equality and freedom using political voting systems based on a vote per person
> the majority rule enforces human rights
153
What changes does democracy often lead to?
- moving to democracy often leads to other changes I.e economic growth and advancement of women’s rights
- democracy can bring about political and social stability — should make countries less willing to support militant or criminal organisations
- it is easier for developed countries to forge military and economic ties with democratic govs
- democratic countries are also much less likely to go to war with each other or resort to internal conflict
154
What does democracy aid typically focus on?
- supporting crucial processes and institutions i.e free and fair elections
- the development of political parties
- strengthening and reforming Gov institutions i.e parliament
- supporting civil society — freedom of expression
155
What is freedom of expression?
The right to express one’s opinions freely: it allows citizens to question their leaders and allows the media report openly without censorship
It is a fundamental right included in the universal declaration on human rights
156
What do overseas aid programmes support?
The freedom of expression as part of promoting democracy
157
What is economic growth?
It is the improvement of infrastructure, access to resources, health, education and environmental protection
> will not necessarily gain respect for human rights
158
What are the positives and negatives of infant mortality, life expectancy and GDP per capita as measures of intervention
**infant mortality**
+ve: responds rapidly to changes in sanitation and added to health
-ve: recording is poor in isolated areas, improvements in health systems often lead to an increase in recorded infant mortality
**Life expectancy**
+ve: widely understood and comparable measure
-ve: responds slowly to improving social conditions
**GDP per capita**
+ve: widely used, and an easy to understand measure of average wealth
-ve: doesn’t indicate income distribution or cost of living
159
In what ways should refugees be treated?
- provided with shelter, food, water and healthcare
- reunited with other family members
- in time, supported to return to their homes or permanently resettled as asylum seekers
160
What is holistic development?
A combination of economic growth, human rights and democratic institutions
161
What are our 5 highly generalised verdicts on development aid?
1. The outcomes of development aid do not match the inputs
2. In the earlier years of development, there was an emphasis on economic development and on prestige projects — little trickle down benefits
3. In more recent times, development aid has been directed more at a grass root level — focussed on education, skills training and healthcare
4. developing countries become dependent on donor countries
5. Over the years there has been much debate about the relative merits of bilateral and multilateral aid
162
What does military intervention mean for the sovereignty of the country on the recipient end?
Their sovereignty is severely eroded
163
Why might intervention make bad human rights ordeals even worse?
Failed intervention risks prolonging conflict, with greater number of deaths, injuries and human rights abuses
164
Name a couple of countries who may have been better without western intervention
Somalia, Libya, Iraq, Afghanistan
165
Are military interventions successful?
Yes:
- if there is a clear goal and exit strategy
No:
- people are killed
- what is classed as a victory?
> where do we draw the line?
166
What are the 2 types of military intervention?
**Direct**
- sending troops to fight
- drone strikes, missiles and bombing
**Indirect**
- providing economic or military assistance I.e sending supplies
167
What is non military intervention? (Diplomatic)
Can sometimes be more effective — leading to long term improvements in human rights and development
> includes intervention by the UN 🇺🇳— peacekeeping
168
What are the 3 peacekeeping principles of the UN?
1. The peacekeeping operation must have the consent of all parties in the conflict
2. The forces must remain neutral and impartial
3. They should not use force other than in self defence or in defence of the mandate that created them in the first place
