Paper 2 Research Methods Flashcards
Reliability
Reliability refers to the extent to which a piece of research is scientific and therefore is replicable. Meaning that if another researcher was to adopt this they would get the same results.
Quantitative data is high in reliability
Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which research methods show a true and honest insight into social reality.
Qualitative data is high in validity
Representativeness
Representativeness refers to the extent to which the sample selected is a fair reflection of the target population
Generalisability
Generalisability refers to the ability to make claims about the wider target population
Practicalities of research
Time: If a method of data collection is time consuming
Cost: If the research requires paying other researchers to assist with the research. Or if travel is involved ect.
Access: If the target population are difficult to access this may cause problems with the sample
Ethical Guidelines
confidentiality, informed consent, debriefing, deception must be warranted
Qualitative
DEFINITION: Methods like participant observations which gives results individuals lives. This produces in-depth data. The data consists of textual information and it is generally high in validity.
EXAMPLES:
- Diary Accounts
- Case Studies
- Photographs
- Video Recordings
Quantitative
DEFINITION: Methods like surveys and structured interviews that give results which can easily be put into a lable. This gives large scale data. Numerical
EXAMPLES:
- Age Collection
- Surveys
- Interviews
Operationalising Concepts
The process of turning a sociological concept into something measurable.
What are the practicalities of sociological research : TCA
TIME: Is a method of data collections time consuming
COST: Does the research require paying for (extra researcher or long periods of research)
ACCESS: Is the target population easy to access or not
Interpretivists
Analysts who use written methods to structure their research
Positivists
Analysts who use the scientific method to structure their research.
Questionnaires (List of questions subject to self completion. Questions can either be open or closed) STRENGTHS
PRACTICAL:
Questionnaires can be distributed to large areas therefore likely to access the participants required for the research which increases representativeness
ETHICAL:
As the method is self completed informed consent is given which can increases validity as the participants feel comfortable answering questions meaning they are more likely to be honest
THEORETICAL:
Standardised questions and the potential to pre code a
data makes this method replicable and therefore more reliable meaning positivists would like this method.
Questionnaires (List of questions subject to self completion. Questions can either be open or closed) WEAKNESSES
PRACTICAL:
Questionnaires can be subject to low response rates. this can affect the generalisability of the data as wider claims might not be able to be made about the whole population.
ETHICAL:
If the topic is sensitive some respondents may feel some form of emotional harm and could potentially lie to give socially desirable responses. This can impact the validity.
THEORETICAL:
Due to the nature of the questions the respondents may select the nearest answer that describes their situation but this may not be fully relevant. This can lead interpretivists not liking this method as it is low in validity.
Content Analysis (This is the number of times a sign, symbol, word, pictures ect. are used within a media text.) STRENGTHS
PRACTICAL:
This is a cheap method to carry out and therefore easy to access a range of data on the research topic. This increases representativeness as it collects data that reflects the characteristics of the group that you are interested in.
ETHICAL:
No participants are required, therefore meaning that ethical considerations and guidelines set out by the BSA are east to follow out.
THEORETICAL:
Content analysis produces quantitate data and is regarded as reliable as it can be carried out again and data can be cross checked. Positivists like this method.
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Content Analysis (This is the number of times a sign, symbol, word, pictures ect. are used within a media text.) WEAKNESSES
PRACTICAL:
This is often a time consuming method. This means that you cannot collect data on a large amount of content. This can reduce the generalisability of the research as you will not be able to make any wider claims bout how a group has been represented based on a small amount of data.
ETHICAL:
This can be a subjective approach at time and some sociologists could analyse text out of context. This could cause emotional harm. This will reduce the validity.
THEORETICAL:
Interpretivists would state that statistics provide little information about human stories or behaviour. This decrease the validity
Structured Interviews (The researcher reads a list of closed questions and ticks boxes of pre coded responses) STRENGTHS
PRACTICAL:
Due to interviews being pre arranged, you are able to gain access to the required participants for the research. This increases representativeness of the research as it reflects the characteristics of the population.
ETHICAL:
The interviewers can explain the aims and objectives of the research which should lead the people to be more comfortable. This encourages informed consent. This can increase validity
THEORETICAL:
The use of closed and standardised questions and responses means the data collected is likely to be objective, which increases reliability as it is replicable meaning positivists like this method.
Structured Interviews (The researcher reads a list of closed questions and ticks boxes of pre coded responses) WEAKNESSES
PRACTICAL:
Interviewers can be more time consuming than methods such as questionnaires. This means that it can be difficult to access a large sample of participants. This would impact on the generalisability of the research as wider claims cant be made.
ETHICAL:
This can be a subjective approach at time and some sociologists could analyse text out of context. This could cause emotional harm to the groups being researched. This can reduce validity.
THEORETICAL: Interpretivists would critique this method as they would suggest that it is not suitable when researching sensitive issues. Meaning a meaningful insight cant be gained.
Semi Structured Interviews (The researcher has some set / pre coded questions however they are able to probe respondents and ask extra questions if needed OR some semi structured interviews have some set themes which are then discussed) STRENGTHS
PRACTICAL:
Due to interviews being pre arranged, you are able to gain access to the required participants for the research. This increases representativeness of the research as it reflects the characteristics of the population.
ETHICAL:
The interviewers can explain the aims and objectives of the research which should lead the people to be more comfortable. This encourages informed consent. This can increase validity
THEORECTICAL:
Interpretivists would like unstructured elements if the interviews as it can produce data that is more qualitative. The nature of these interviews means that they are flexible. The unstructured questions means in depth data can be gained by increasing validity.
Semi Structured Interviews (The researcher has some set / pre coded questions however they are able to probe respondents and ask extra questions if needed OR some semi structured interviews have some set themes which are then discussed) WEAKNESSES
PRACTICAL:
Interviews can be more time consuming. This means that i can be difficult to access a large sample of participants. This impacts generalisability as wider claims cant be made.
ETHICAL:
If the questions make the respondent feel uncomfortable this may lead to emotional harm and safeguarding issues. This can decrease validity.
THEORECTICAL:
Positivists would not like the flexibility of this method and would argue that if rapport builds then the interviewer can become biased and lose objectivity and therefore impacting on the reliability of the research.
Unstructured Interviews (The researcher may have some themes too cover but no pre - determined questions or rigid themes that they should follow. These interviews take a conversational flow) STRENGTHS
PRACTICAL:
Due to interviews being pre arranged, you are able to gain access to the required participants for the research. This increases representativeness of the research as it reflects the characteristics of the population.
ETHICAL:
Informed consent will be given and participants can build rapport between the researcher and participent meaning that conversational flow can occur meaning they would not feel emotional harm. This increases validity
THEORECTICAL:
This method leads to lots of in depth data collection where the interviewers can probe and ask questions. This dramatically increases validity of the research. interpretavists would like this method.
Unstructured Interviews (The researcher may have some themes too cover but no pre - determined questions or rigid themes that they should follow. These interviews take a conversational flow) WEAKNESSES
PRACTICAL:
Interviews can be informed consent so only a small sample is gathered. This decreases the generalisability was wider claims cannot be made.
ETHICAL:
If the questions make the respondent feel uncomfortable this may lead to emotional harm and safeguarding issues. This can decrease validity and the respondent may feel they need to provide socially desirable responses.
THEORECTICAL:
Positivists would not lie the lack of structure of this method and would say that is rapport builds then the interviewer can become biased which impacts reliability and it becomes hard to replicate.
Focus Groups (An unstructured interview directed to a group of respondents who are encouraged to discuss with each other. The interviewer will set up themes and questions and manage the responses from participants) STRENGTHS
PRACTICAL:
Due to the focus groups being pre arranged, you are able to gain access to the required participants for the research and therefore the response rate is likely to be higher. Increasing representativeness as the sample will reflect the characteristics of the target population.
ETHICAL:
Informed consent will be given and participants can build rapport meaning they wont feel emotional harm as they are in a relaxed environment. This increases validity.
THEORECTICAL:
Interpretivists would like this method as in depth discussions are encouraged. The questions and themes are tailored to the specific group. Which can increase a relaxed feeling increasing the validity as participants are more likely to answer truthfully
Focus Groups (An unstructured interview directed to a group of respondents who are encouraged to discuss with each other. The interviewer will set up themes and questions and manage the responses from participants)
WEAKNESSES
PRACTICAL:
Data recording and analysis can be dificult and time consuming as all respondents will give different answers therefore sample size is likely to be small. This then reduces the generalisability of the result as wider claims cannot be made.
ETHICAL:
Respondents may feel uncomfortable if sensitive topics arise. This can lead to others feel uncomfortable leading to a decrease in their input. This decreases validity.
THEORETICAL: If rapport builds then the interviewer can become biased. This will reduce the reliability as it will be difficult to then replicate.
Non Participent Observations OVERT (The participants know they are being studied but the researcher is not involved with the group being researched - most of these observations collect qualitative data) STRENGTHS
PRACTICAL:
The researcher is not involved in the group meaning that it is a fairly easy and cost effective method. Researcher can then access more people which can increase representativeness and generalisability.
ETHICAL:
As the participants know they are being observed, informed consent is likely to happen which increases validity as they known and should feel more comfortable to behave normally.
THEORECTICAL:
Interpretivists like this method as an in depth insight can be gained which increases validity.
Non Participent Observations OVERT (The participent know they are being studied but the researcher is not involved with the group being researched - most of these observations collect qualitative data) WEAKNESSES
PRACTICAL:
Observations can be fairly time consuming and therefore the researcher may not be able to carry out many observations. This can reduce generalisability as wider claim cannot be made because of the small number of observations.
ETHICAL:
Empathy and understanding may be reduced if the participants fell uncomfortable being observed. They may not display their true behaviour and could feel some form of emotional harm. Thus reducing validity
THEORECTICAL:
Positivists would not like this method as it is difficult to replicate especially if there isn’t a code scheme meaning that reliability is decreased.
Non Participant Observation COVERT (The researcher is NOT fully participating with the group and the participants are unaware they are being studied) STRENGTHSo
PRACTICAL:
The researcher is not involved in the group meaning that it is a fairly easy and cost effective method. Researcher can then access more people which can increase representativeness and generalisability.
ETHICAL:
The researcher is unlikely to influence groups studied. Also they are at less risk of harm if they are not fully involved in the group. Therefore the group is less likely to change their behaviour which increases validity.
THEORECTICAL:
Interpretivists would like this method as it gives a in depth insight which increases validity.
Non Participant Observation COVERT (The researcher is NOT fully participating with the group and the participants are unaware they are being studied) WEAKNESSES
PRACTICAL:
Observations can be fairly time consuming and therefore the researcher may not be able to carry out many observations. This can reduce generalisability as wider claim cannot be made because of the small number of observations.
ETHICAL:
This method holds real ethical issues as no informed consent can be given if the participants do not know they are being observed. As a result the researcher could hold biases towards the group which can reduce validity.
THEORECTICAL:
The research would be hard to replicate reducing the reliability. Positivists would not like this method as a result of this.
Participant Observations OVERT (The participants know they are being studied and the researcher is fully involved with the group being researched) STRENGTHS
PRACTICAL:
As the participants know they are being observed the researched and the researcher is involved in the observation, they may be able to access more people through the discussion. This can increase representativeness and generalisability.
ETHICAL:
The researcher can be fully immersed in the group that is being studied and experience and good understanding. As the participants know they are being researched ethical guidelines are followed and informed consent is likely. This increases validity as the informants should feel comfortable.
THEORECTICAL:
Interprervists would like this method as it gives an in depth insight which increases validity.
Participant Observations OVERT (The participants know they are being studied and the researcher is fully involved with the group being researched) WEAKNESSES
PRACTICAL:
Observations can be time consuming and therefore the researcher may only be able to observe small groups. As a result thsi can reduce generalisability as wider claims cannot be made based on a small number of observations.
ETHICAL:
Participants may feel uncomfortable being observed and this could lead to emotional harm. They may treat the researcher as an outsider therefore reducing validity.
By being immersed in the group the researcher has the potential to be at risk of harm. If they become too involved they may become biased meaning validity is reduced.
THEORECTICAL:
Positivists would not like this method as it is difficult to replicate, especially if there isn’t a coding scheme meaning that reliability is low.
Participant Observations COVERT (The researcher is participating with the group and the participants are unaware they are being studied) STRENGTHS
PRACTICAL:
As the participants know they are being observed the researched and the researcher is involved in the observation, they may be able to access more people through the discussion. This can increase representativeness and generalisability.
ETHICAL:
The researcher can be fully immersed in the group that is being studied and experience and good understanding. As the participants know they are being researched ethical guidelines are followed and informed consent is likely. This increases validity as the informants should feel comfortable.
THEORECTICAL:
Interprervists would like this method as it gives an in depth insight which increases validity.
Participant Observations COVERT (The researcher is participating with the group and the participants are unaware they are being studied) WEAKNESSES
PRACTICAL:
Observations can be time consuming and therefore the researcher may only be able to observe small groups. As a result thsi can reduce generalisability as wider claims cannot be made based on a small number of observations.
ETHICAL:
Participants may feel uncomfortable being observed and this could lead to emotional harm. They may treat the researcher as an outsider therefore reducing validity.
By being immersed in the group the researcher has the potential to be at risk of harm. If they become too involved they may become biased meaning validity is reduced.
THEORECTICAL:
Positivists would not like this method as it is difficult to replicate, especially if there isn’t a coding scheme meaning that reliability is low.
Ethnography (Involves the researcher immersing themselves into the natural setting of the social group being studied, and participating in and observing their daily activities) STRENGTHS
PRACTICAL:
By immersing yourself within the group you can gain access to a range of participant’s. This will increase the representativeness as the research will reflect the characteristics of the target population
ETHICAL:
Allows the researcher to gain informed consent from the informants. This increases the validity as they feel comfortable answering questions meaning they are more likely to be honest
THEORECTICAL:
Ethnographic research is preferred by interprevists as rapport can be build which allows the researcher to access lived experience of particular social groups which increases validity and a true insight is gained.
Ethnography (Involves the researcher immersing themselves into the natural setting of the social group being studied, and participating in and observing their daily activities) WEAKNESSES
Official Statistics (Quantitative data collected by the government which is often gathered through other research methods such as questionnaires. Two of the biggest sources if official statistics come from the Office for National Statistics and the Census) STRENGTHS
PRACTICAL:
It is not time consuming, so a large sample can be taken which increases generalisability.
ETHICAL:
Official statistics are a form of secondary data so following ethical guide lines isnt an issue. The data also tends to be anonymous. Therefore repsonses tend to be honest which increase validity.
THEORECTICAL:
Positivists like this method of data collection as its objective and has been collected statistically meaning its high in reliability.
Official Statistics (Quantitative data collected by the government which is often gathered through other research methods such as questionnaires. Two of the biggest sources if official statistics come from the Office for National Statistics and the Census) WEAKNESSES
PRACTICAL:
They may not fully represent the whole picture of what is being researched. Although the data can be collected in large samples repsones rates can be low this then reduces generalisability
No wider claims can be made
ETHICAL:
Official statstics are open to political abuse which can be manipulated to look better. They could also lead to harm as some groups may be misrepresented. This means that validity is low.
THEORECTICAL:
Statistics are quantitive and tell us nothing about the stories behind the numbers. Interprevists and feminists would therefore not like this method. It is low in validity.
