Paper 2 Research Methods Flashcards
What is a hypothesis
General statement of what the researcher intends to investigate
What is an aim
Clear, precise, testable statement, that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated
What is a directional hypothesis
States the difference that is anticipated between the variables
What is a non directional hypothesis
Only states there is a difference
What is a variable
Anything that can change or vary within an investigation
What is an independent variable
Variable which is manipulated
What is a dependent variable
Variable that is measured
- operationalised
What are the controlling variables
- extraneous
- confounding
- demand characteristics
- investigator effects
- randomisation
- standardisation
What is independent groups design
When two separate groups experience two separate conditions in the experiment
+ no issues with order effects
- issues with individual differences = the participants in separate groups are not the same
- less economical as only contribute one result
What is repeated measures design
Where all participants take part in all conditions of the experiment
+ changes won’t be down to individual differences = same participants
+ requires less people
- problems with order effects (confounding variables) = the order the tasks are done in may be significant, repeating two task could cause boredom or fatigue, for skilled based task repetition could improve performance, dealt with through counterbalancing (half in one half in other)
- problems with demand characteristics = people could guess the aim of the experiment when doing all the conditions, changing behaviour accordingly
What is matched pairs design
Where participants are matched base on a variable relevant to the study, one participant is assigned one condition and the other assigned another condition
+ order effects and demand characteristics less of a problem, participants only do one condition
- participants can never be matched accurately
- time consuming
What is a laboratory experiment
Conducted in a controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effects of the DV
+ high control over extraneous variables = ensures any effects on the DV is the result of the manipulation of the IV, high internal validity
+ replication more possible due to high internal validity
- lacks generalisability = not like everyday life, low external validity
- takes may not represent real life experience, low mundane realism
What is a field experiment
Conducted in a natural setting where the IV is manipulated and the effects of the DV are recorded
+ higher mundane realism = produces behaviour which is more real and so more valid, high external validity
- cannot control extraneous variables = cause and effect difficult to establish
- precise replication not possible
- ethical issues = participants don’t know they are being tested, deception
What is a natural experiment
Where the change in IV is not bought about by the researcher but occurs even if the researcher had not been there
+ provide opportunities for research that could otherwise not be done = possibly due to ethical issues
+ high external validity = study real life issues as they happen
- rare = reduced opportunities for research, limits scope
- participants are not randomly allocated so unsure whether the IV effects DV
What is a quasi experiment
Has an IV that is based on an existing difference between people = No one has manipulated it
+ still carried out in controlled conditions
- cannot randomly allocate participants so there may be confounding variables
What is random sampling
A sophisticated way of sampling in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
1. Obtain a complete list of all members of the target population
2. All names are assigned a number
3. The sample is generated through a lottery method
+ free from research bias
- difficult and time consuming
- sample may be unrepresentative = freak sample
What is a stratified sample
Sophisticated form of sampling in which the composition of the sample represents the proportions of people in certain sub groups (strata) within the target population
1. Identify the strata that make up the population
2. The proportions needed for the sample are worked out
3. Participants that make up each stratum are allocated using random sampling
+ avoids researcher bias
+ produces a representative sample
- cannot always reflect the ways in which people are different
What is an opportunity sample
Selecting anyone who happens to be willing to be available to do the study
+ convenient and cheaper
- can be unrepresentative of the target population = findings cannot be generalised
- researchers may avoid people they don’t like the look of = rebreather bias
What is a volunteer sample
Involves participants selecting themselves to be apart of the sample = self selection
+ easy = requires minimal input
- volunteer bias = asking may attract a certain type of person, may affect how far findings can be generalised
What is informed consent and how can it be dealt with
- Prospective participants should know what they are getting into before they go into it
- researchers should inform participants of the aims of the research/ the procedures/ their right to withdraw and what data will be used for
- Participants should be issued with a letter outlining all relevant information that may affect their decision to participate
- participants under 16 = parental consent required
What is deception and how is it dealt with
- Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants
- meaning they cannot give informed consent
- at the end of the study participants should be given a full debrief stating the true aims of the investigation
- they should also be told what the data is used for and given the right to withdraw data if they wish
What is protection from harm and how is it dealt with
- Participants should not be placed at any more risk than what they would be in their daily lives and should be be protected from physical and psychological harm
- participants should be reminded they have the right to withdraw at any point
- participants should be reassured their behaviour was typical/ normal if they have concerns
- if participants have been subject to stress or embarrassment they should be offered counselling
What is privacy and confidentiality and how should it be dealt with
- participants have the right to control information about themselves
- if this is invaded then they should have the right to confidentiality
- personal details should remain anonymous = numbers instead of initials
- during briefing and debriefing participants should be reminded their data will be protected throughout the process
What is a pilot study
Small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the actual investigation
- Checks that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc. work and allows changes to be made
What is a single blind trail in a pilot study
when participants do not know the aim of the study but the researcher is aware
= control confounding variables and demand characteristics
What is a double blind trial in a pilot study
Neither the participants or the researcher conducting the investigation know the aim of the study (important in drug trials)
= avoids bias participants knowing the drug is placebo ensuring reliability
Covert/ overt
Covert
= participants unaware they are being observed
+ removes participant reactivity, demand characteristics
- ethical issues, deception
Overt
= participants know they are being observed and have given informed consent
+ more ethical than covert
- problems with demand characteristics
Participant/ non participant
Participant
= researcher becomes part of the group whose behaviour is being watched and reordered
+ gives researcher increased insight into lives of people they are studying
- problems with researcher bias, lose their objectivity
Non participant
= the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour is being watched and recorded
+ research remains objective
- lose insight into the lives of the participants
Structured/ unstructured observation
Structured
= an observation using predetermined coding scheme to record the participants behaviour (quantitive data)
+ easier data collection
+ more systematic
- only produces numerical data
Unstructured
= observation where there is no checklist so all behaviour scene is written down in detail as much as possible
+ more in-depth data
- Observe bias
What are 2 sampling methods
Event sampling
= counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual or group
+ useful when target behaviour is infrequent
- specified
event may be too
complex - details can be overlooked
Time sampling
= recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame
+ reduces number of observations that must be made
- behaviour sampled observation may be
unrepresentative of the observation as a whole
Open and closed questionnaires
Open questions
= does not have fixed range of answers participants can respond in any way they wish (qualitative data)
Closed questions
= offers a number of fixed responses like yes or no (quantitative data)
+ cost effective
+ gather large amount of data is quickly
+ Can be completed without the researcher present
+ easier to analyse
- Responses may not always be truthful = unreliable
Structured and unstructured interviews
structured interviews
= questions are asked in a set order and the interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule or probe beyond the answers received (inflexible)
+ easy to replicate = more reliable
- inflexible and may not gain as much information
unstructured interviews
= schedule may not be used, contain open ended questions that can be asked in any order. some questions might be added/ missed as the interview progresses
+ flexible = gain in depth responses - increase validity
- time consuming to analyse information = interview training expensive
what is a case study
- in depth investigation, description and analysis of individual or group
- usually produces qualitative data - psychological testing on them will produce quantitative data
- usual longitudinal studies
+ offer detailed insights that may shed light on atypical forms of behaviour
- generalise findings from small sample to whole population
- subjective interpretation
- prone to inaccuracies
reliability
= how consistent findings are - producing same results each time
test re test
= giving the same test to the same participant on different occasions, the two sets of data will be correlated to ensure similarity
inter observer reliability
= each observer has subjective opinion, having two or more observers ensures behavioural categories are applied the same way
interviews
= use same interviewer each time
experiments
= replication of method
observations
= ensure behavioural categories are operationalised
validity
= does what it is supposed to do
internal validity
= whether effects are due to manipulation of IV not another factor like demand characteristics
external/ ecological validity
= generalising findings from one setting to another - low mundane realism
temporal validity
= whether finings hold true overtime
how to improve validity
experimental research
= using control group/ standardised procedures/ single, double blind procedures
questionaries
= incorporate a lie scale/ ensure anonymity
observations
= covert observations/ avoid ambiguous behavioural categories
qualitative method
= interpretive validity/ do researchers interpretations match with participants/ triangulation/ use different sources of evidence
