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A level Psychology > Paper 2 Research Methods > Flashcards

Paper 2 Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a hypothesis

A

General statement of what the researcher intends to investigate

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2
Q

What is an aim

A

Clear, precise, testable statement, that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated

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3
Q

What is a directional hypothesis

A

States the difference that is anticipated between the variables

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4
Q

What is a non directional hypothesis

A

Only states there is a difference

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5
Q

What is a variable

A

Anything that can change or vary within an investigation

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6
Q

What is an independent variable

A

Variable which is manipulated

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7
Q

What is a dependent variable

A

Variable that is measured
- operationalised

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8
Q

What are the controlling variables

A
  • extraneous
  • confounding
  • demand characteristics
  • investigator effects
  • randomisation
  • standardisation
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9
Q

What is independent groups design

A

When two separate groups experience two separate conditions in the experiment

+ no issues with order effects
- issues with individual differences = the participants in separate groups are not the same
- less economical as only contribute one result

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10
Q

What is repeated measures design

A

Where all participants take part in all conditions of the experiment

+ changes won’t be down to individual differences = same participants
+ requires less people
- problems with order effects (confounding variables) = the order the tasks are done in may be significant, repeating two task could cause boredom or fatigue, for skilled based task repetition could improve performance, dealt with through counterbalancing (half in one half in other)
- problems with demand characteristics = people could guess the aim of the experiment when doing all the conditions, changing behaviour accordingly

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11
Q

What is matched pairs design

A

Where participants are matched base on a variable relevant to the study, one participant is assigned one condition and the other assigned another condition

+ order effects and demand characteristics less of a problem, participants only do one condition
- participants can never be matched accurately
- time consuming

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12
Q

What is a laboratory experiment

A

Conducted in a controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effects of the DV

+ high control over extraneous variables = ensures any effects on the DV is the result of the manipulation of the IV, high internal validity
+ replication more possible due to high internal validity
- lacks generalisability = not like everyday life, low external validity
- takes may not represent real life experience, low mundane realism

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13
Q

What is a field experiment

A

Conducted in a natural setting where the IV is manipulated and the effects of the DV are recorded

+ higher mundane realism = produces behaviour which is more real and so more valid, high external validity
- cannot control extraneous variables = cause and effect difficult to establish
- precise replication not possible
- ethical issues = participants don’t know they are being tested, deception

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14
Q

What is a natural experiment

A

Where the change in IV is not bought about by the researcher but occurs even if the researcher had not been there

+ provide opportunities for research that could otherwise not be done = possibly due to ethical issues
+ high external validity = study real life issues as they happen
- rare = reduced opportunities for research, limits scope
- participants are not randomly allocated so unsure whether the IV effects DV

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15
Q

What is a quasi experiment

A

Has an IV that is based on an existing difference between people = No one has manipulated it

+ still carried out in controlled conditions
- cannot randomly allocate participants so there may be confounding variables

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16
Q

What is random sampling

A

A sophisticated way of sampling in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
1. Obtain a complete list of all members of the target population
2. All names are assigned a number
3. The sample is generated through a lottery method

+ free from research bias
- difficult and time consuming
- sample may be unrepresentative = freak sample

17
Q

What is a stratified sample

A

Sophisticated form of sampling in which the composition of the sample represents the proportions of people in certain sub groups (strata) within the target population
1. Identify the strata that make up the population
2. The proportions needed for the sample are worked out
3. Participants that make up each stratum are allocated using random sampling

+ avoids researcher bias
+ produces a representative sample
- cannot always reflect the ways in which people are different

18
Q

What is an opportunity sample

A

Selecting anyone who happens to be willing to be available to do the study

+ convenient and cheaper
- can be unrepresentative of the target population = findings cannot be generalised
- researchers may avoid people they don’t like the look of = rebreather bias

19
Q

What is a volunteer sample

A

Involves participants selecting themselves to be apart of the sample = self selection

+ easy = requires minimal input
- volunteer bias = asking may attract a certain type of person, may affect how far findings can be generalised

20
Q

What is informed consent and how can it be dealt with

A
  • Prospective participants should know what they are getting into before they go into it
  • researchers should inform participants of the aims of the research/ the procedures/ their right to withdraw and what data will be used for
  • Participants should be issued with a letter outlining all relevant information that may affect their decision to participate
  • participants under 16 = parental consent required
21
Q

What is deception and how is it dealt with

A
  • Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants
  • meaning they cannot give informed consent
  • at the end of the study participants should be given a full debrief stating the true aims of the investigation
  • they should also be told what the data is used for and given the right to withdraw data if they wish
22
Q

What is protection from harm and how is it dealt with

A
  • Participants should not be placed at any more risk than what they would be in their daily lives and should be be protected from physical and psychological harm
  • participants should be reminded they have the right to withdraw at any point
  • participants should be reassured their behaviour was typical/ normal if they have concerns
  • if participants have been subject to stress or embarrassment they should be offered counselling
23
Q

What is privacy and confidentiality and how should it be dealt with

A
  • participants have the right to control information about themselves
  • if this is invaded then they should have the right to confidentiality
  • personal details should remain anonymous = numbers instead of initials
  • during briefing and debriefing participants should be reminded their data will be protected throughout the process
24
Q

What is a pilot study

A

Small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the actual investigation
- Checks that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc. work and allows changes to be made

25
Q

What is a single blind trail in a pilot study

A

when participants do not know the aim of the study but the researcher is aware
= control confounding variables and demand characteristics

26
Q

What is a double blind trial in a pilot study

A

Neither the participants or the researcher conducting the investigation know the aim of the study (important in drug trials)
= avoids bias participants knowing the drug is placebo ensuring reliability

27
Q

Covert/ overt

A

Covert
= participants unaware they are being observed
+ removes participant reactivity, demand characteristics
- ethical issues, deception

Overt
= participants know they are being observed and have given informed consent
+ more ethical than covert
- problems with demand characteristics

28
Q

Participant/ non participant

A

Participant
= researcher becomes part of the group whose behaviour is being watched and reordered
+ gives researcher increased insight into lives of people they are studying
- problems with researcher bias, lose their objectivity

Non participant
= the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour is being watched and recorded
+ research remains objective
- lose insight into the lives of the participants

29
Q

Structured/ unstructured observation

A

Structured
= an observation using predetermined coding scheme to record the participants behaviour (quantitive data)
+ easier data collection
+ more systematic
- only produces numerical data

Unstructured
= observation where there is no checklist so all behaviour scene is written down in detail as much as possible
+ more in-depth data
- Observe bias

30
Q

What are 2 sampling methods

A

Event sampling
= counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual or group
+ useful when target behaviour is infrequent
- specified
event may be too
complex - details can be overlooked

Time sampling
= recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame
+ reduces number of observations that must be made
- behaviour sampled observation may be
unrepresentative of the observation as a whole

31
Q

Open and closed questionnaires

A

Open questions
= does not have fixed range of answers participants can respond in any way they wish (qualitative data)

Closed questions
= offers a number of fixed responses like yes or no (quantitative data)

+ cost effective
+ gather large amount of data is quickly
+ Can be completed without the researcher present
+ easier to analyse
- Responses may not always be truthful = unreliable

32
Q

Structured and unstructured interviews

A

structured interviews
= questions are asked in a set order and the interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule or probe beyond the answers received (inflexible)
+ easy to replicate = more reliable
- inflexible and may not gain as much information

unstructured interviews
= schedule may not be used, contain open ended questions that can be asked in any order. some questions might be added/ missed as the interview progresses
+ flexible = gain in depth responses - increase validity
- time consuming to analyse information = interview training expensive

33
Q

what is a case study

A
  • in depth investigation, description and analysis of individual or group
  • usually produces qualitative data - psychological testing on them will produce quantitative data
  • usual longitudinal studies

+ offer detailed insights that may shed light on atypical forms of behaviour
- generalise findings from small sample to whole population
- subjective interpretation
- prone to inaccuracies

34
Q

reliability

A

= how consistent findings are - producing same results each time

test re test
= giving the same test to the same participant on different occasions, the two sets of data will be correlated to ensure similarity

inter observer reliability
= each observer has subjective opinion, having two or more observers ensures behavioural categories are applied the same way

interviews
= use same interviewer each time

experiments
= replication of method

observations
= ensure behavioural categories are operationalised

35
Q

validity

A

= does what it is supposed to do

internal validity
= whether effects are due to manipulation of IV not another factor like demand characteristics

external/ ecological validity
= generalising findings from one setting to another - low mundane realism

temporal validity
= whether finings hold true overtime

36
Q

how to improve validity

A

experimental research
= using control group/ standardised procedures/ single, double blind procedures

questionaries
= incorporate a lie scale/ ensure anonymity

observations
= covert observations/ avoid ambiguous behavioural categories

qualitative method
= interpretive validity/ do researchers interpretations match with participants/ triangulation/ use different sources of evidence

A level Psychology (10 decks)

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