PAPER 2 - Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
What is INTROSPECTION ?
the examination or observation of one’s own mental and emotional processes.
Who is Wundt ?
- father of psychology
- aim was to examine the structure of the mind
What was Wundt’s APPROACH ?
structuralism
What was Wundt’s TECHNIQUE ?
introspection
What were the 2 major assumptions that introspection were based on ?
(1) all behaviour is seen as being caused (determined)
(2) if behaviour is determined, this it should be possible to predict how human being would behave in different conditions.
What are the 2 WEAKNESSES of Wundt’s introspection technique ?
UNRELIABLE - relied on ‘non-observational’ response - not reliable reproduced by other researchers
NOT ACCURATE - lacks validity - we have little knowledge of the processes behind out behaviour.
What are the 4 psychology goals ?
DESCRIPTION - tells us ‘what’ occurred
EXPLANATION - tells us ‘why’ it occurred
PREDICTION - identify conditions that will cause a behaviour to occur
CHANGE - apply psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted behaviour
What is a STRENGTH of the emergence of psychology as a science ?
reliance on OBJECTIVE SYSTEMATIC METHODS means that theories were tested rather than being accepted as true
What is a WEAKNESS of the emergence of psychology as a science ?
by concentrating on objectivity we may focus more on controlling the situation rather than looking at how people behave in normal situation (ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY)
What are the 5 approaches that explain behaviours ?
THE LEARNING APPROACH: behaviourist and SLT
COGNITIVE APPROACH : point of view of our mind
PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH: point of view of our unconscious and early childhood experiences
BIOLOGICAL APPROACH: point of view of genetics
HUMANISTIC APPROACH: point of view of self-image
What is the FIRST ASSUMPTION that behaviourists believe ?
- psychology should be seen as a science
- supported by evidence
- objective and controlled observations
What is the SECOND ASSUMPTION that behaviourists believe ?
- psychologists should study OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOURS
What is the THIRD ASSUMPTION that behaviourists believe ?
- no FREE WILL
- ENVIRONMENT determines BEHAVIOUR
What is the FOURTH ASSUMPTION that behaviourists believe ?
- when we are BORN our mind is TABULA RASA (blank slate)
What is the FIFTH ASSUMPTION that behaviourists believe ?
- little difference in the learning between ANIMALS and HUMANS
- study animals generlaise to humans
What is CLASSICAL CONDITIONING ?
- learning through association
- two stimuli (UCS) + (NS) - repeatedly paired
What are the STRENGTHS of classical conditioning ?
EVIDENCE
- Watson and Rayner
- Little Albert
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
- systematic desensitization
- treat ANXIETY of phobias
What is a LIMITATION of classical conditioning ?
DIFFERENT SPECIES, DIFFERENT SURVIVAL NEEDS
- Seligman
- preparedness
- associate if linked with survival
- cc isn’t always implemented
What does the COGNITIVE APPROACH argue ?
internal mental processes should be observed
What involvement do schema’s have on behaviour ?
contribute to how we perceive and have opinions on the world
Who researched the schema theory ?
Bugelski and Alampay
How did BUGELSKI and ALAMPAY study the schema theory ?
Group A - animals - activate animal schema - last image
- animal related
Group B - human - activate human schema - last image
- human related
What are THEORETICAL MODELS ?
- one way to study INTERNAL PROCESSES
- information processing approach
- information flows through cognitive system
What are COMPUTER MODELS ?
- comparing minds to computers
What is COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE ?
- how structures affect mental processes
- Paul Broca = frontal lobe affects speech
Name 2 brain imaging techniques
fMRI and PET scans
What do brain imaging techniques do ?
identify activity in specific areas of the brain
What are the STRENGTHS of the cognitive approach ?
USES SCIENTIFIC & OBJECTIVE METHODS
- reliable, objective methods
- enables biological and cognitive approach to come together
- credible basis
USEFUL APPLICATIONS
- explain dysfunctional behaviours
- successful treatment
What is the WEAKNESSES of the cognitive approach ?
COUNTERARGUMENT
- too abstract and theoretical
- artificial stimuli = not represent everyday experiences
COMPUTER MODELS
- different programming between humans and computers
What would suggest that there is a genetic basis behind traits ?
if MONOZYGOTIC twins have a HIGHER concordance rate than DIZYGOTIC twins
How do we know that the environment has some effect on traits ?
concordance rate of MZ twins is not 100%
How are twin studies used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis ?
- comparing concordance rates
- concordance rate = extent that both twins share the same characteristics
What is GENOTYPE ?
GENETIC CODE - ‘written’ in the DNA
What is PHENOTYPE ?
BEHAVIOUR and PHYSICAL STRUCTURE - arising from INTERACTION between their GENOTYPE and ENVIRONMENT
What is EVOLUTION ?
change in INHERITED CHARACTERISTICS over SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS
What is the mechanism behind biological evolution ?
natural selection
How does evolution affect behaviour ?
over successive generations - ADVANTAGEOUS BEHAVIOURS - passed on - widespread
What is ‘SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST’ ?
characteristics are inherited - compete for resources - those who survive reproduce - offspring have this good traits
What happened to PHINEAS GAGE ?
- metal bar through skull and brain
- little intellectual impairment
- personality change
What did the case study of Phineas Gage suggest ?
- damage to frontal lobes
- this structure is involved in controlling behaviour
Who studied London taxi drivers ?
WOOLLETT AND MAGUIRE
How does NEUROCHEMISTRY affect behaviour ?
levels of neurotransmitters affect mood and mood and behaviour
What is the DOPAMINE HYPOTHESIS ?
schizophrenia results from an EXCESS of DOPAMINE - causes FIRING RATE to increase - transmits TOO MANY MESSAGES - causes symptoms
What does a more recent assessment of the DOPAMINE HYPOTHESIS suggest ?
too many DOPAMINE RECEPTORS rather than too much dopamine
Why do HORMONES do ?
cause PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTION - alerting its activity
Who studied the effects of hormones ?
CARRE ET AL - Canadian ice hockey team
What did CARRE ET AL find ?
- surge in levels of TESTOSTERONE - home stadium - energised players - defending home territory
What are the STRENGTHS to the biological approach ?
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
- objective measurement
- easily replicated
- credibility
REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS
- development of psychoactive drugs
- treat mental illness
- gain relief
What are the LIMITATIONS of the biological approach ?
CANNOT ESTABLISH CAUSE AND EFFECT
- never be completely sure that brain activity influences behaviour
DETERMINISM
- sees human behaviour as governed by INTERNAL BIOLOGICAL cases
- have no control over
What is humanistic psychology concerned with ?
explanations of healthy growth of individuals
Who led the research of humanistic psychology ?
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
What does humanistic psychology believe about FREE WILL ?
- we have free will
- rejects scientific models
- psychology should concern itself with SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE
What is Maslow’s HIERARCHY OF NEEDS ?
- physiological needs at the bottom
- self-actualisation at the top = PEAK EXPERIENCE
What is CONGRUENCE ?
ROGERS
- personal growth achieved through congruence
- more overlap between SELF-IMAGE and IDEAL-SELF
- issues in adulthood stem from childhood due to a lack of UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD
What is PERSON-CENTRED THERAPY ?
- each person is best expert of themselves
- encourage to find OWN SOLUTIONS
- talk as openly as possible
- counsellor provides UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD
What are the STRENGTHS of the humanistic approach ?
NOT REDUCTIONIST
- gain better insight into individual’s behaviour
- qualitative methods
- holistic view
- more valid = meaning human behaviour = real life context
POSITIVE APPROACH
- offers refreshing and optimistic alternative
- sees people as free to work towards improving themselves
What are the LIMITATIONS of the humanistic approach ?
LIMITED APPLICATIONS
- not many real-life application other than the therapy
- abstract concepts
UNSTABLE CONCEPT
- adopts non-scientific approach
- difficult to study
- lack of empirical evidence to support theories
What does the PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH suggest ?
behaviour is the result of EARLY CHILDHOOD experiences and UNCONSCIOUS THOUGHTS and FEELINGS
Who was the founder of the psychodynamic approach ?
Sigmund Freud
What is the role of the unconscious ?
conscious mind = tip of the iceberg
unconscious mind = larger part
behaviour stems from the unconscious part - reveals itself through slips of the tongue
What did Freud believe about defence mechanisms ?
mind actively prevents traumatic memories - repression / denial / displacement
What are the 3 structures of personality ?
ID / EGO / SUPEREGO
What is the ID ?
PLEASURE PRINCIPLE - present from birth- immediate gratification
Give an example of the ID
if a person is hungry the id demands that they eat there and then
What is the EGO ?
REALITY PRINCIPLE - mediates between other two personalities
Give an example of the EGO
may delay gratifying the id until there is a more appropriate opportunity to satisfy its demands
What is the SUPEREGO ?
MORALITY PRINCIPLE - develops around age 4/5 - right or wrong - how we should behave
What is REPRESSION ?
MOTIVATED FORGETTING - threatening thoughts are pushed out
What is DISPLACEMENT ?
TRANSFERRING FEELINGS from a TRUE SOURCE onto a TARGET e.g. parent
What is DENIAL ?
REFUSING TO BELIEVE the situation is occurring
What are the 5 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES involved with PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ?
oral stage anal stage phallic stage latency stage genital stage
(OAPs Love Gravy)
What is the ORAL STAGE (0-1) ?
pleasure in the mouth - sucking / biting
What are the consequences of unresolved conflict in the oral stage ?
ORAL FIXATION - smoking / biting nails
What is the ANAL STAGE (1-3)
pleasure in the anus - control of bodily waste
What are the consequences of unresolved conflict in the anal stage ?
ANALLY RETENTIVE - perfectionist
ANALLY EXPULSIVE - disorganised
What is the PHALLIC STAGE (3-6)
Oedipus and Electra complex - unconscious desire for opposite sex parent - identify with same sex parent
boys fear castration
girls suffer penis envy
What are the consequences of unresolved conflict in the phallic stage ?
PHALLIC PERSONALITY - reckless / possibly homosexual
What is the LATENCY STAGE (6-puberty)
sexual urges
What is the GENITAL STAGE (puberty onwards)
sexual desires - become conscious alongside onset of puberty
What are the consequences of unresolved conflict in the genital stage ?
difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
What are the STRENGTHS of the psychodynamic approach ?
EXPLANATORY POWER
- explains wide range of phenomenon
- demonstrated influence of childhood on adulthood
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
- used in hypnosis bringing unconscious to conscious
- could be considered inappropriate
What are the LIMITATIONS of the psychodynamic approach ?
UNSTABLE CONCEPTS
- hard to falsify - open to interpretation - very subjective - hard to tests
PSYCHIC DETERMINISM
- no behaviour is an accident - driven by unconscious forces
What is OPERANT CONDITIONING ?
how consequences influence behaviour
What is REINFORCEMENT ?
something in the environment that STRENGTHENS a behaviour making it more likely to occur
What is POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT ?
INCREASES the likelihood that the behaviour will be REPEATED - consequence is pleasant
Give an example of positive reinforcement
giving child praise for carrying out a good behaviour
What is NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT ?
INCREASES the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated - removing something unpleasant
Give an example of negative reinforcement
giving a crying child sweets to take away the crying
What is PUNISHMENT ?
DECREASES the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated - consequence is unpleasant
Give an example of punishment
giving a detention for not completing homework
What is POSITIVE PUNISHMENT ?
giving something unpleasant e.g. press-ups at badminton
What is NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT ?
removing something desirable e.g. being grounded
What are the STRENGTHS of operant conditioning ?
EMPIRICAL SUPPORT
- Skinner
- cause and effect
REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS
- token economy programmes
- prisons
- good behaviour is rewarded
What are the LIMITATIONS of operant conditioning ?
FREE WILL IN HUMANS COMPARED TO ANIMALS
- cant relate Skinner’s research to humans
however. ..
- skinner argued free will is an illusion
MECHANISTIC VIEW OF BEHAVIOUR
- animals = passive responders
- humans = active responders
- learning theory may apply less to humans
What is the SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY ?
we learn indirectly by observing and imitating others
What is MODELLING ?
someone who is looked at ‘role model’
- can be live models or symbolic
What is IMITATION ?
copying of behaviour
- determined by characteristics of models, ability to perform and consequences of behaviour
What is IDENTIFICATION ?
the extent that someone relates to a model
What is VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT ?
learning by looking at the consequences of a behaviour
What is the MEDITATION PROCESS ?
cognition involved prior to imitation
- attention / retention / motor reproduction / motivation
What is ATTENTION ?
noticing the behaviour
What is RETENTION ?
remembering the behaviour
What is MOTOR REPRODUCTION ?
being physically capable / possible
What is MOTIVATION ?
has to be a reason for copying the behaviour
