paper 2: 2024 Flashcards
psychodynamic model
Outline the ego and the superego according to the psychodynamic approach (4 marker)
- The ego and superego are parts of Freud’s psychodynamic model of personality.
- The superego is the morality principle, it’s the part of the personality that has moral standards and controls impulses.
- the ego is the mediator between the demands of the id and morality of the superego, it being the reality principle
conscious
Outline Wundt’s method of introspection (4 marker)
- Wundt’s method of introspection involved analyzing conscious thoughts and experiences under controlled conditions.
- Participants were exposed to standardized stimuli and trained to describe their sensations, feelings, and mental processes systematically.
- The focus was on breaking consciousness into basic elements, such as thoughts and images, to understand the structure of the mind.
- This approach marked the beginning of experimental psychology as a scientific discipline.
serotonin
Outline one example of how neurochemistry influences behaviour
(3 marks)
- One example of how neurochemistry influences behavior is the role of serotonin in regulating mood.
- Low levels of serotonin have been linked to behaviors associated with depression and anxiety.
- For example, research has shown that individuals with a deficiency in serotonin may experience feelings of sadness, irritability, and a lack of motivation, which are common symptoms of depression.
- Conversely, increasing serotonin activity, through medications like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), can help alleviate these symptoms and improve mood.
self and ideal
Humanistic approach for why Karishma is not displaying congruence
- A humanistic psychologist may suggest that Karishma is not showing congruence because there is conflict between self concept and ideal self.
- This is because she is achieving good grades, showing that she has the ability, but her low self esteem prevents the cohesion of her self and ideal self
psychotherapy
How can the humanistic approach help Karishma
- In the humanistic approach, a type of psychotherapy is introduced which is used to create a welcoming accepting environment for the client.
- In this therapy they would use unconditional positive regard, trying to get a better understanding of Karishma, empathising with her as well as trying to get her to recognise her strengths and talents.
- Through is, the approach is trying to align her self concept to her achievements to make her more confident to pursue her dreams
adrenaline + parasympathetic
The two false statements about the fight or flight response are:
A: A decrease in the release of adrenaline
D: The parasympathetic division being in control of functioning
A + B
Nursery Number
6 for nursery A
4 Nursery B
reinforcements and skinner
Outline how behaviourists explain learning through the process of operant conditioning
- Operant conditioning, proposed by Skinner, explains learning as behavior shaped by consequences.
- Positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior by adding a pleasant stimulus, such as giving praise for good work.
- Negative reinforcement also increases behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus, like turning off an alarm when a task is completed.
- Punishment, either by introducing an unpleasant consequence or removing a pleasant one, decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
- Skinner demonstrated this with experiments, such as training rats to press levers in a controlled environment.
skinner/reinforcements + Bandura/processes
Compare operant conditioning with social learning. [8 marks]
A01 + A03
AO1:
* Operant conditioning, proposed by Skinner, explains behavior as learned through consequences.
* Positive reinforcement strengthens behavior by adding a reward, while negative reinforcement strengthens it by removing something unpleasant.
* Punishment, on the other hand, decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
- In contrast, social learning theory, proposed by Bandura, emphasizes learning through observation and imitation of others.
- Key processes include **attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation, with reinforcement and ** playing a role in whether a behavior is imitated.
- The theory also highlights the role of vicarious reinforcement, where individuals learn by observing the consequences of others’ actions.
AO3
* Both theories acknowledge reinforcement in learning. However, operant conditioning focuses on direct reinforcement, whereas social learning incorporates vicarious reinforcement, where observed outcomes influence behavior.
- Operant conditioning does not consider internal mental processes, focusing solely on observable behavior. Social learning emphasizes cognitive processes, such as attention and memory, in determining whether behavior is imitated.
- Both have practical uses, such as operant conditioning in behavior management (e.g., token economies) and social learning in understanding aggression or prosocial behavior, as demonstrated in Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment.
Identify and explain ethical issues that may arise when conducting a case study on difficulty sleeping.
(6 marks)
Informed consent:
Participants must be fully informed about the nature, purpose, and procedures of the study, as well as any potential risks involved. This ensures that their participation is voluntary and based on a clear understanding.
Psychological Harm
Discussing or analyzing sleeping difficulties might cause participants to relive distressing experiences, potentially exacerbating anxiety or stress. Researchers must minimize harm and provide support resources if needed.
Right to Withdraw
Participants should have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without consequences. If this is not respected, participants might feel trapped or pressured to continue, compromising the study’s ethical integrity.
outline thyroxine and its function
- Thyroxine is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland that plays a key role in regulating the body’s metabolic rate.
- It increases the speed at which cells convert nutrients into energy, influencing processes such as growth, development, and temperature regulation.
- Thyroxine also affects the heart rate, helping maintain the body’s overall energy balance.
- Its release is controlled by the pituitary gland, which secretes thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) to regulate thyroxine levels in the blood.
16 MARKER: Describe the effect of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers on the sleep/wake cycle.
A01 ONLY
Biological rhythms, such as the circadian rhythm, are controlled by both endogenous pacemakers (internal biological clocks) and exogenous zeitgebers (external environmental cues).
The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), located in the hypothalamus, is the primary endogenous pacemaker and regulates key processes like the sleep-wake cycle.
It coordinates other biological clocks in the body and receives input from external zeitgebers, such as light, through the optic nerve.
Exogenous zeitgebers help align biological rhythms with the environment, with light being the most significant, though social cues (e.g., meal times and social interaction) also play a role.
1) Evaluation for 16 marker
MORGAN 1995
Point: One strength is the Morgan’s 1955 study on the role of the SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) in regulating circadian rhythms provides valuable insight into the functioning of endogenous pacemakers, offering strong evidence for the SCN’s importance in controlling biological rhythms.
Evidence: In his study, Morgan removed the SCN from hamsters, which resulted in disrupted circadian rhythms, suggesting that the SCN is the primary endogenous pacemaker. This aligns with later research by Ralph et al. (1990), who similarly demonstrated that the SCN controls circadian rhythms by transplanting SCN cells between hamsters.
Explanation: The removal of the SCN leads to disrupted rhythms, supporting the idea that the SCN is crucial in regulating biological clocks. This evidence reinforces the significance of endogenous pacemakers in controlling the body’s internal timekeeping mechanisms.
**Link: **However, a limitation of Morgan’s study is its reliance on animal models, which may not fully generalize to humans. For example, Siffre’s cave study (1975) suggests that human circadian rhythms are more complex, and thus, conclusions drawn from animal studies may not always apply directly to humans. Additionally, the ethical issues surrounding the invasive procedures in Morgan’s study raise concerns about animal wellbeing.
2) Evaluation
Miles et al 1977
Point: A strength of research into exogenous zeitgebers is the evidence supporting the role of external cues, like light, in regulating biological rhythms, as demonstrated by Miles et al. (1977).
**Evidence: **Miles et al. (1977) conducted a study on a blind young man, blinded from birth. They found that his biological clock was not entirely free-running and could be synchronized to a 24-hour cycle, indicating the influence of other exogenous zeitgebers, like social cues, in regulating biological rhythms.
**Explanation: **This study emphasizes the important role that exogenous zeitgebers, beyond just light, play in regulating biological processes. It also suggests that for individuals with impaired vision, cues other than light can still be effective in synchronizing their biological clocks, indicating the importance of a variety of environmental cues in maintaining circadian rhythms.
**Link: **However, a weakness of this line of research is that it may lack generalisability because factors like individual differences in the sensitivity to zeitgebers may impact the findings, suggesting that the conclusions drawn from these studies might not apply universally across all individuals.
3) Evaluation
real life application
Real-World Application: Jet Lag and Shift Work
Studies have shown that exposure to light at specific times can help re-align circadian rhythms disrupted by jet lag or shift work.
Evaluation: This supports the practical significance of exogenous zeitgebers like light in managing the sleep/wake cycle.
Counterpoint: It may oversimplify the complex interaction between endogenous pacemakers and zeitgebers, as factors like social cues also play a role.
use content analysis
- systematically categorising and analyzing parents’ diaries by finding recurring themes or patterns in behaviours.
- do this by coding categories through criteria, e.g. imaginative or physical play.
- then would analyse diary entries
- tally up each theme in the correct category
- this creates quantitative data to compare
how to assess reliability of content analysis
test, retest reliability where multiple researchers analyse diaries and compare their results to see if there is consistency, if not discuss to come to an agreement. correlation is calculated if below 0.8 bad. pilot study can also be done
