paper 2

Question 1

effectiveness of these attributions for a cyclist : it was an easy course today with the wind behind you and you were lucky that the rider who was first hit that pot
hole (5)

Answer 1

not very effective; external factors won’t motivate or build confidence; being lucky is unstable external meaning it could change easily, saying if they didn’t hit the pot hole they wouldn’t’ve won, reduce confidence and motivation; course easy is external stable, not in riders control so wasn’t their own effort; wouldn’t develop mastery orientation/could lead to avoidance behaviours

Question 2

describe attributions for the success that the coach might use to motivate the cyclist (4)

Answer 2

should be internal like ability or effort to build confidence, maintain motivation; will increase future effort as within their control; ‘won because you trained/tried hard’ (internal/unstable); ‘won because very talented/good endurance’ (internal/stable)

Question 3

describe methods that might be used to eliminate aggressive tendencies in sports
performers (11)

Answer 3

lower arousal (cognitive); stress management ; selective attention; punishment; educate (channelled aggression, consequences, techniques); remove from situation; reinforce non aggression; positive role models; responsibility/goal set to control aggression; positive self talk

Question 4

explain what is meant by state anxiety / and what can cause it(5)

Answer 4

anxiety from a specific situation/cue; competitive state/pressure to win/fear of failure; fear of injury; fear of embarrassment; high arousal more likely to get anxious

Question 5

explain what is meant by trait anxiety (3)

Answer 5

anxiety that is innate/pre disposition/part of personality; generalised/felt in most situations; enduring/stable/more permanent

Question 6

how anxiety might influence performance in sport (4)

Answer 6

de motivation/giving up/avoidance behaviour; lack of concentration/missing important cues; lose control/temper/overly aggressive; lead to mistakes/poor techniques

Question 7

explain why goal setting is important in sustaining a balanced, active and healthy lifestyle (7)

Answer 7

motivation; persistence; focus; control anxiety; confidence; develop skills/methods/strategies; reward/achievement

Question 8

explain the effects of cue utilisation on performance (8)

Answer 8

focuses attention/conc/selective attention; attention increases as arousal increases to optimal; low arousal can lead to poor performance as relevant cues missed/focus on irrelevant cues; arousal optimal then performance increase as important cues attended to; enter zone of optimal functioning/peak flow +ve effect as build confidence lead to good performance; high arousal attention narrows miss vital cues poor performance; high arousal info overload, cant sort all info, confusion/’freezing’; high arousal lead to hypervigilance, good if very narrow attention needed (archery), bad if other cues missed

Question 9

describe characteristics of task oriented leadership (4)

Answer 9

leader concentrated on job, concerned with end product/performance/winning, pre determined goal, make all of the decisions

Question 10

when might task oriented leadership be used in sport (9)

Answer 10

discipline and control needed, hostile group, lack of time, in early stage, beginners, dangerous situation, large groups, high pressure situation, group prefers autocratic

Question 11

describe characteristics of social oriented leadership (3)

Answer 11

leader concerned with interpersonal relations, more democratic, shares decision making

Question 12

when might social oriented leadership be used in sport (5)

Answer 12

group can/want to participate in shared decision making, advanced performers who have knowledge, if leader and group know each other well, task isn’t dangerous, more time

Question 13

describe characteristics of laissez faire leadership (3)

Answer 13

leader has no direct influence on members, leader takes back seat, leader lets members make their own decisions

Question 14

when might laissez faire leadership be used in sport (4)

Answer 14

high level/elite performers, help develop creativity, leader has full trust in members capability, leader is creating assessment situation

Question 15

describe social learning theory of personality (3)

Answer 15

we observe and copy behaviour of others; copy significant others/role models; learning requires reinforcement

Question 16

describe interactionist theory of personality (2)

Answer 16

personality determined by interaction between personality and the situation/environment; behaviour changes depending on demands of situation or personality is not predictable/stable

Question 17

describe possible causes of aggressive behaviour in sport (12)

Answer 17

innate/can’t help behaviour as its natural/spontaneous; blocked goals/frustration/arousal; copying significant others/via social learning; wanting to be accepted by a group/cultural influences/expected or normal behaviour of culture; nature/norms of the game; triggers/cues from environment; retaliation/revenge; event importance/competitiveness; pressure to win; pressure from others/following tactics; alcohol/drugs lowers inhibition; personal problems

Question 18

what defines a group as opposed to a collection of individuals (2)

Answer 18

group has a common goal; members interact/communicate with each other

Question 19

show what is meant by an effective autocratic leader in sport using eg

Answer 19

a captain in hockey making the decision about a short corner routine; ensures all members are clear about their role in the routine

Question 20

explain what is meant by the zone of optimal functioning

Answer 20

when performers level of arousal is at the optimum level; they will give their best performance

Question 21

describe characteristics of a performer who is said to be ‘in the zone’ (4)

Answer 21

performer focused/fully concentrating; performance appears effortless/automatic; peak flow experience/confidence; enjoyment/satisfaction at key part in performance eg ‘raising game in more challenging situation

Question 22

why might the zone of optimal functioning differ between performers (3)

Answer 22

some respond positively to more pressure, others play better with less; different performers have different emotional reactions linked to performance (some better when calm/angry); circumstances outside performance may affect response (injury, training poorly)

Question 23

analyse how banduras model of self efficacy can have an effect on performance (8)

Answer 23

performer reminded of past success which increase confidence/improve performance; past success attributed to internal/controllable; watching performer of similar standard can raise confidence; positive extrinsic feedback/reinforcement raise confidence; understanding signs of increased arousal; knowing increases arousal wont lead to failure and can be controlled; the expectation of performer to achieve success; is now improved as self efficacy is higher

Question 24

explain how different causes of stress could affect sports performance (6)

Answer 24

fear of failure - think they’ll lose, poor attitude, no will to win; strong sense of competition/need to win - become tense simple errors; evaluation apprehension - stress rise worry they’re not good enough; type A - more prone to stress due to perfectionist nature; past errors/injury - scenario will go around in their head, negatively reinforcing; age/experience - less experience may find high level comp more stress - mental maturity in controlling stress comes with experience and age

Question 25

identify somatic stress management techniques (4)

Answer 25

progressive muscular relaxation, biofeedback, centring techniques, breathing control

Question 26

define arousal (3)

Answer 26

intensity of emotion/motivation/behaviour; degree of psychological readiness; amount of drive to achieve

Question 27

describe the catastrophe theory (5)

Answer 27

as arousal increases so does performance to optimum level; if arousal too high performance suddenly decreases; due to high (cognitive/somatic) anxiety; if cognitive anxiety decreased performance improves; if anxiety continues performance continues to decrease

Question 28

explain how attitudes to performing in physical activity may be formed (6)

Answer 28

social learning theory; following social norms to fit in; past experience; media influence reinforces stereotypes; cultural/religious influences on participation; education that influences beliefs

Question 29

explain how presence of a crowd might impact performance of an elite high jumper with extrovert personality (6)

Answer 29

elite so audience will help performance as DR correct; as they have correct motor programmes/has autonomous control; extrovert so audience will help performance as extroverts require external stimulation; as extroverts have lower levels of internal arousal; skill is gross/dynamic/ballistic and requires higher arousal; as there are few requirements to process info

Question 30

explain why goal setting is important (7)

Answer 30

motivation, persistence, focus, anxiety, develop skills/methods/strategies, confidence, reward/achievement

Question 31

describe the peak flow experience associated with the zone of optimal functioning in sport (9)

Answer 31

feel enjoyment/effortless; performer is playing well/excellent performance/experiencing success; high confidence/self efficacy; relaxed/anxiety is controlled/calm; optimal level of arousal; well motivated/high level of effort; different individuals experience peak flow in different ways/times; maximum concentration/focus/cue utilisation is good; movements are automatic/autonomous

Question 32

factors that affect social facilitation and social inhibition (9)

Answer 32

arousal, skill/ability variable, personality, task/importance of event, environment (home/away), evaluation apprehension, proximity/size of audience, distractions, attention narrowing

Question 33

define attitude (3)

Answer 33

pre disposition towards an attitude object; way we might act towards something; learned behaviour that's a typical response of the individual

Question 34

identify factors that affect how attitudes are formed (8)

Answer 34

socialisation; peer group/friends; parents; media; religion; culture; past experience; positive reinforcement

Question 35

why laissez faire may be unsuitable for leading a novice in sport (3)

Answer 35

beginners might not know what to do so wouldn't make much progress; could learn/practise skill incorrectly so would do more damage than good; may be dangerous/unsafe for beginners to be left without instruction

Question 36

why goal setting may not always be an effective method of improving performance (5)

Answer 36

goal may be too hard to athlete to achieve so demotivate; if athlete didn't set goal they might not feel ownership so not motivated to work towards it; need easier goal or longer timescale if too short; if not experiencing early success they may give up as confidence and motivation not built; how successful goal is depends on who sets it/what the goal is

Question 37

describe term evaluation apprehension (2)

Answer 37

arousal/anxiety increases due to perceived judgement by others; perceive others are judging you so you become anxious/less confident

Question 38

explain the term emergent leaders + eg

Answer 38

comes from within the group eg voting in one of the cricketers to be captain

Question 39

explain the term prescribed leaders + eg

Answer 39

selected from outside the group eg new football manager being appointed from another team

Question 40

why might an emergent leader be a better leader for a sports team (4)

Answer 40

readily accepted by the group; knows players and team dynamics; understand how different people communicate within the team; already shown commitment/effort/ability/proven themselves

Question 41

describe the three components of attitude

Answer 41

cognitive is our belief/knowledge formed from others and experience; affective refers to emotional reactions to attitude objects (like/dislike); behavioural how we actually behave/react, may not reflect cognitive

Question 42

what is meant by ‘social inhibition’ during sports performance

Answer 42

decrease/decline/reduction in performance due to the presence of a crowd

Question 43

strategies a sports performer could use to minimise social inhibition (7)

Answer 43

imagery/selective attention to block out audience; relaxation techniques to help relax and reduce tension; train in front of audience to get used to it; support from peers/coach to reassure; thought stopping can help control worry; overlearn skills so they are DR when arousal increases; decrease importance of event

Question 44

evaluate social learning theory of personality +(2) -(4)

Answer 44

+: bobo doll experiment supports idea; evidence to suggest some aspects of personality are learnt by watching and copying SOs; --: too simplistic/doesn't account for traits; siblings with same upbringing don't always have same personality; if it were true we'd all have same personality as our role models

Question 45

evaluate trait theory of personality +(2) -(4)

Answer 45

+: if its correct behaviour can be predicted; some evidence personality is influenced by genetics eg aggressive tendencies; --: not accurate as not likely only genetic input determines personality; doesn't account for how personality changes in different environments/doesn't account for free will/upbringing; identical twins in different environment don't have the same personality

Question 46

define learned helplessness

Answer 46

belief that failure is inevitable or belief they will never succeed

Question 47

identify characteristics of effect leadership in sport (10)

Answer 47

good communication skills, confident, motivated, clear goal/good decision maker, can see alternative POVs, good knowledge of sport, high ability/experienced, charisma, adaptable

Question 48

identify cognitive stress management techniques (6)

Answer 48

positive thinking, negative though stopping, rational thinking, mental rehersal, mindfulness, goal setting

Question 49

explain how effective leadership can be achieved according to Chelladurai’s multi-dimensional model of sports leadership (15)

Answer 49

leader should be aware of situational characteristics/they are environmental conditions; leader needs to be aware of member characteristics/they are gender/age/skill level; leader needs to be aware of their own characteristics/have own natural style/experience; required behaviour is what needs to be done by leader/situation and member characteristics influence required behaviour; preferred behaviour is what group wants leader to do/member and situational characteristics influence preferred behaviour; actual behaviour is leader style chosen by the leader; effective leadership when actual matches required and preferred/good performance and member satisfaction when actual matches required and preferred; effective could be consequence of good performers and satisfied members; if actual and required match but is not preferred leadership can be effective but lower group satisfaction

Question 50

explain the term ‘cognitive dissonance’ in relation to changing an attitude in sport (4)

Answer 50

conflict/disharmony created or imbalance in triadic model; intro of new info to change the cognitive or affective component; in order to create consonance; more uncomfortable the individual, greater desire to change one of the attitudes to reduce dissonance

Question 51

evaluate the instinct theory of aggression +(4) -(6)

Answer 51

+: natural human instinct to be aggressive; A hard to control; some people are always A/predictable; feel catharsis when channelling A into sport; --: not all humans/cultures show A; too simplistic; A usually provoked; A often learnt/influence by upbringing/people can control A instincts; A is shown depending on situation

Question 52

define sports confidence

Answer 52

belief an individual has about their ability to be successful in sport

Question 53

impact of sports confidence on participation (3)

Answer 53

high more likely to take part/try new activities/enjoy team activities; low less likely to participate/show avoidance behaviours

Question 54

impact of sports confidence on performance (3)

Answer 54

high more likely to achieve positive outcome/achieve peak flow/take risks; low causes poor performance/underachievement; over confidence/complacency could cause under performance

Question 55

in relation to Weiner’s model of attribution explain the term ‘locus of control’ (3)

Answer 55

controllable and uncontrollable or extent to which an outcome is under control; directly affects motivation; C = under control of performer or others or something can be done to change the outcome; UC = under no ones control or nothing can be done to change the outcome

Question 56

define the term stress (3)

Answer 56

perception of inability to cope or state of mental/emotional strain or can be + or - but often associated with situation where capabilities doesn't match demands

Question 57

describe storming stage of group development (6)

Answer 57

team may have difficulty making decisions; conflict as members jostle for positions; members might work in different ways; clear goal established within team; strong manager needed to guide team through this stage; cliques can form

Question 58

describe norming stage of group development (6)

Answer 58

conflict within group resolved; members work together towards a common goal; roles accepted within group; stronger sense of unity/commitment to team; respect for captain/leader; team stronger socially/meet up outside training

Question 59

explain Vealey’s model of sports confidence (13)

Answer 59

current sport situation; trait SC innate self belief in sport; state SC level of self belief in specific sport situation; competitive orientation competitiveness; state SC influenced by trait SC and competitive orientation; higher both=higher state SC; state SC dictates behaviour/outcome; higher state SC=successful performance; low state SC=poor performance; after individual will feel satisfaction or disappointment; satisfaction will increase trait SC and competitive orientation; disappointment will decrease trait SC and competitive orientation; previous outcomes will influence future state SC

Question 60

discuss the impact of an individual’s attributions following a failure in sport (13)

Answer 60

internal motivation/confidence decrease/shame increase; internal M increase; external shield real reason for failure/lack of improvment; external no shame/C/M not lost; stable lower M/failure expected to be repeated; unstable believe outcome can change/motivated to change outcome; controllable M increase/believe something can be done to change outcome; uncontrollable M decrease; learned helplessness develop if internal/stable/uncontrollable; LH believe they cant change anything/give up; mastery orientation if internal/controllable/unstable; MO learn from failure/motivate to strive to improve; external/unstable self serving bias, protects self esteem

Question 61

attributions that would be classed as uncontrollable (7)

Answer 61

ability, luck, task difficulty, pitch, ref, weather, form

Question 62

sporting examples of aggressive cues (7)

Answer 62

derby match; incorrect ref decision; seeing teammate punched; nature of game (rugby, boxing); playing at a pitch where you've previously been injury; provoked by verbal abuse/close rival/being fouled; weapons/objects (hockey stick)

Question 63

strengths of interactionist theory of personality (3)

Answer 63

takes into account effect of both traits and environment; explains why behaviour is often unpredictable/why might act different in different situations; explains why people in same environment behave differently

Question 64

define personality

Answer 64

what makes a person unique or characteristics/traits that influence behaviour

Question 65

use banduras model of self efficacy to analyse what may cause a performer to have low self efficacy (11)

Answer 65

previous failure/no success; if reason for past failure was uncontrollable/stable; see someone in class fail; see others succeed that are more advanced; no encouragement/overuse negative feedback; significant other tells them they're no good/no encourage; peer pressure; no effective strategies to control arousal; perceive physiological changes as worrying not preparing for action; means they wont try activity as they think they wont be good which further reinforces low self efficacy; more components that are negative, greater chance of having low self efficacy

Question 66

define mastery orientation

Answer 66

individual being motivated by learning/motivated to become an expert/feeling of being in control of the outcome

Question 67

explain the two types of reinforcement that may be used | during operant conditioning when learning motor skills

Answer 67

positive: stimulus given when desired response occurs/to make performer repeat correct response/strengthen SR; negative: unpleasant stimulus withdrawn when desired response occurs

Question 68

causes of negative transfer (5)

Answer 68

performer misunderstanding movements required; familiar stimulus requiring new response; different skills that appear to be similar; conflicting skills taught together; when practise environment different to competition environment

Question 69

how coach can minimise negative transfer (4)

Answer 69

make practise sessions similar to game situation; draw attention to differences in response; make sure skills thoroughly learnt before moving onto new ones; avoid teaching similar skills together

Question 70

explain terms 'retention' and 'motor reproduction'

Answer 70

retention: remember model/demo or store info in memory; motor reproduction: be physically/mentally able

Question 71

factors that affect successful modelling (bandura) | 8

Answer 71

if model is: significant other; similar to us in terms of age/gender/position; models behaviour reinforced; high standard/accurate; warm/friendly; demo clear/repeated; observer motivated; observer focused on relevant cues

Question 72

strengths of multi store approach to memory (7)

Answer 72

simple; explains how can deal with large amounts of info; realistic answer to how deal with/filter lots of info; explains how people with memory conditions remember things from long ago but not what just happened; explain how can perform skill they haven't for a long time; true that info repeated more likely to be stored in LT; explains how info that isn't rehearsed is forgotten

Question 73

weaknesses of multi store approach to memory (7)

Answer 73

too simple; doesn't explain why remember one type of info and not another; doesn't prove/explain distinction between ST and LT; not all repeated is stores in LT/doesn't specify how many reps needed; doesn't count for individual differences; doesn't account for motivation/interest

Question 74

define fixed practise

Answer 74

stable/predictable practise environment; practise conditions remain unchanging

Question 75

ways a coach can optimise positive transfer (6)

Answer 75

make practises game related; explain similar movements; teach similar skills close together; make sure previous skill is well learnt; positive reinforcement; teach fundamental/basic skills first

Question 76

strengths of verbal guidance (7)

Answer 76

good for autonomous/expert; direct/clear/quick; motivate performer; focuses attention; develops understanding of how to produce a movement; refine skills during performance; effective for simple skills

Question 77

weaknesses of verbal guidance (6)

Answer 77

lead to errors if not accurate; info overload; ineffective with beginners; boring; confusing; some movements are hard to explain/would benefit more from a demo

Question 78

strengths of visual guidance (9)

Answer 78

help create mental image; good for beginners/cognitive stage; enable coach to cue performer in; slo mo can help understand movement; enable skill to be seen in different stages to make it easier to learn; gives understanding of movements required; error detection; encourage observational learning; more effective if repeated/role model

Question 79

weaknesses of visual guidance (4)

Answer 79

demo could be incorrect or at wrong level; too quick; static images don't show how movement produced; slo mo can be unclear

Question 80

describe how a coach would teach a performer according to the cognitive theory of learning (5)

Answer 80

whole practise; coach explains movement/tactic or performer develops insight/understanding; coach uses problem solving activity; coach would allow for intervening variables; coach would refer learner to past experiences

Question 81

strengths of how cognitive theory may affect their learning (7)

Answer 81

develops better understanding; able to apply skill/tactic more effectively; quick progress; helps for problem solving in the future; adapt to different situations better/use schema; learn to self correct or don't always have to rely on coach; develops kinesthesis

Question 82

weaknesses of how cognitive theory may affect their learning (8)

Answer 82

might find whole skill too difficult or ineffective for low organisation/complex/serial/dangerous skills; lose motivation; learning slower if performer doesn't understand or might learn skills incorrectly; might understand what to do but be physically unable to execute the skill; might not be as successful as watching and copying role models; skills might not be as well learnt if no reinforcement or some people rely on reinforcement; might have no past experience to draw on

Question 83

explain ways that operant conditioning can be used to | learn skills, other than positive reinforcement (7)

Answer 83

SR bond; manipulation of environment; shaping; trial and error; negative reinforcement; punishment; thorndikes law of readiness/exercise

Question 84

strengths of use of rewards in operant conditioning (5)

Answer 84

effective; easy; effective for young performer/early stages of learning; speed up process of learning new skill; motivating

Question 85

weaknesses of use of rewards in operant conditioning (4)

Answer 85

reward can take away from enjoyment of activity; incorrect timing strengthens wrong SR; motivation lost/rewards meaningless if overused/expect rewards every time learn new skill

Question 86

strengths of negative feedback (3)

Answer 86

informs what they're doing wrong; help fine tune performance; motivate to improve more/prevent drive reduction

Question 87

weakness of negative feedback (3)

Answer 87

could demotivate if overused; doesn't necessarily tell performer what they're doing wrong; if feedback inaccurate can hinder performance

Question 88

strengths of knowledge of performance (3)

Answer 88

help understand how to refine technique; if received during performance allows adjustments of movement immediately; can inform technique is correct even if outcome is wrong

Question 89

weaknesses of knowledge of performance (2)

Answer 89

detrimental to performance if inaccurate; doesn't inform expert of outcome