Paper Flashcards
Briefly explain the term “norm”. Include an example of a norm that
may vary between cultures.
• Social norms are unwritten rules or expectations governing how individuals should behave in a society or group.
• They dictate what is considered acceptable or unacceptable behaviour in various social
• They provide a framework for maintaining social order and cohesion.
• Norms influence individuals’ behaviour by setting standards for conduct and interactions.
• Greetings: In some cultures, such as many Western countries, it is common to greet people with a handshake. In contrast, in some East Asian cultures, bowing is the traditional form of greeting, and a handshake might be seen as intrusive.
• Eating Etiquette: Western Cultures: In many Western countries, eating with utensils such as forks and knives is the norm, and it is common to finish all food on the plate. Asian Cultures: In many East Asian cultures, eating with chopsticks is standard, and it is often acceptal leave some food on the plate as a sign of satisfaction.
• Dress Codes: Western Cultures: In many Western countries, casual dress is widely aco in most social settings, including some formal occasions. Middle Eastern Cultures: In Middle Eastern countries, conservative dress is the norm, with expectations for both me women to wear modest clothing, such as long robes or abayas.
• Personal Space: Southern European Cultures: In countries like Italy and Spain, people stand close to one another during conversations and engage in frequent physical contact, as hugging. Northern European Cultures: In countries like Sweden and the UK, people te prefer more personal space and may maintain a greater distance during interactions, witl frequent physical contact.
Explain the difference between the social definition and the legal
definition of crime.
Provide an example of each.
Social Definition of Crime:
• Refers to behaviour that is considered deviant or unacceptable by societal norms and values
It focuses on the social and cultural context and how actions are perceived by the public.
• Can vary greatly between different societies and social groups. It is based on societal reactions and perceptions rather than written laws.
: Speeding: Considered a criminal offence under traffic laws, but may be viewed as a minor
infraction or acceptable behaviour by some individuals, especially if done in low-risk situations
• Stealing Stationery from Work: While legally classified as theft, it is often perceived by some as a trivial or harmless act, particularly if it involves items of low value.
• Soft Drugs: The use and possession of soft drugs, such as cannabis, is illegal in many places, but enforcement can be inconsistent. In some areas, possession of small amounts may be tolerated or result in minimal legal action, reflecting a discrepancy between legal status anc actual enforcement.
Legal Definition of Crime:
: Refers to behaviour that is explicitly prohibited and punishable under the law. It is based or
codified statutes and legal codes.
Actus Reus: The physical act or conduct that constitutes the criminal offence. It is the e. element of the crime.
• Mens Rea: The mental state or intention of the person committing the crime. It is the il element that involves the offender’s intent or recklessness.
Examples
Theft: Involves the actus reus of unlawfully taking someone else’s property and the me of intending to permanently deprive the owner of it.
• Assault: Includes the actus reus of causing physical harm or threatening harm, and the rea of intending to cause fear or actual harm.
• Fraud: Consists of the actus reus of deception or misrepresentation, and the mens intending to deceive for personal gain.
Describe how laws have changed over time, using a specific
example
Potential content:
• Laws are not static; they evolve in response to changes in societal values, advancem knowledge, and shifts in political priorities. This dynamic nature of legal systems is es for maintaining social order and ensuring that laws reflect contemporary moral and standards.
• Social Movements: Grassroots and advocacy groups campaign for changes in the address perceived injustices or outdated regulations. For example, LGBTQ+ rights played a crucial role in advocating for the legalisation of same-sex marriage.
• Public Opinion: Shifts in societal attitudes and beliefs can prompt legislative bor reconsider and amend laws. As public attitudes become more progressive, lawmake enact reforms to align legal standards with the evolving views of the populace.
• Political Priorities: Changes in government or political leadership can influence le agendas. New administrations may prioritise reforms that reflect their policies or the of their supporters.
• Judicial Interpretation: Courts may interpret existing laws in new ways that highlight for legislative updates. Judicial rulings can expose gaps or inconsistencies in prompting legislative action to address these issues.
• International Influence: Global trends and international human rights standards impact domestic lawmaking. For instance, international treaties or conventions may el countries to adopt similar legal standards.
• Examples:
• Legalisation of Same-Sex Marriage: The Marriage (Same-Sex Couples) Act 2013 same-sex couples to marry in England and Wales, marking a significant shift towards and recognition of LGBTQ+ relationships.
• Abolition of the Death Penalty: The death penalty was abolished in the UK for murder passage of the Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965. This reflected evolving human rights and the justice system’s approach to punishment.
• Introduction of Minimum Wage Laws: The National Minimum Wage Act 1998 estal legal minimum wage for workers in the UK, addressing issues of wage exploita ensuring fair compensation for labour.
Discuss how laws can be applied differently depending on the
circumstances in which actions occur.
• Laws are designed to provide a framework for maintaining social order, but their ap can vary significantly based on the context in which actions occur.
• Location: Legal penalties may differ based on where an offence occurs (e.g., public vs spaces). For example, public intoxication may be treated more severely than private c
• Time: The time at which an offence is committed can influence its severity. For ins curfew violation might be considered more serious if it occurs during late-night hours
• Context: Actions taken in self-defence may be justified under certain circumstances, protecting oneself from an imminent threat. The application of self-defence laws ‹ depending on whether the threat was perceived as immediate and proportional.
• In a physical altercation, a person who uses force to protect themselves may prosecuted, while excessive or retaliatory force may lead to charges.
• Judicial Discretion: Judges often have discretion in sentencing based on the circumst the offence, including the offender’s background, gender (chivalry thesis), the im victims, and mitigating factors.
• A first-time offender may receive a more lenient sentence compared to a repeat offen
the same crime, such as drug possession.
• Legal Interpretation: Minor offences like littering or jaywalking may be enforced more le depending on local regulations and the enforcement priorities of the authorities.
• In some areas, littering may result in a warning, while in others, it may lead to a community service.
.
Identify two reasons why certain crimes, like domestic violence, go
unreported.
Fear
Shame
Not affected by the crime
• Disinterest
Lack of knowledge
Complexity
• Lack of media interest
• Lack of current public concern
Culture-bound crime
Briefly explain how the public perception of domestic violence has
changed over time.
• Past Perception: Domestic violence was traditionally viewed as a private matter. It wa not recognised as a serious crime, and intervention by authorities was rare.
Social Norms: Societal norms often tolerated or ignored domestic violence, with a beli what happened within a home was a private issue and not subject to outside interfere some cultures, domestic violence was even seen as acceptable or justified.
• Shift Towards Zero Tolerance: Modern society increasingly views domestic viole unacceptable. There is greater recognition of the emotional, psychological, and physica it causes to victims and families.
• Support for Victims: There is now more public support for victims of domestic violenc an emphasis on providing safe spaces, support services, and legal protection. This st been aided by the work of charities, support groups, and government initiatives e.g.
Law.
Describe how one physiological theory accounts for criminality.
• Sheldon’s Somatotypes Theory:
Developed by American psychologist William Sheldon in the 1940s, this theory categorises individuals into three main body types, or ‘somatotypes’, each associated with specific personality traits
Three Somatotypes:
• Endomorphs: Characterised by a rounder, softer body shape, with more fat and a wider waist.
Sheldon associated endomorphs with being sociable, relaxed, and comfortable.
Ectomorphs: Identified by a lean, thin body type with little fat or muscle. Ectomorphs are typically associated with being introverted, anxious, and socially withdrawn.
• Mesomorphs: Defined by a muscular, athletic build with broad shoulders and a low percentage f body fat. Sheldon linked mesomorphs with being assertive, adventurous, and more prone to aggressive behaviour.
Mesomorphs and Criminal Behaviour: Sheldon argued that mesomorphs are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour due to their physical strength and associated personality traits such as aggression, assertiveness, and a tendency to take risks. These characteristics can lead to violent or delinquent actions.
• Research Evidence: Sheldon’s studies suggested a higher proportion of mesomorphs among prison populations compared to the general public, supporting the idea that physical build might correlate with criminal tendencies.
• According to Sheldon, the muscular build of mesomorphs not only makes them more capable of committing physically demanding crimes (e.g., robbery, assault) but also gives them the confidence and dominance to engage in such behaviour.
• Lombroso’s theory:
• Lombroso developed the theory of atavism, which suggests that criminals are a throwback to an earlier stage of human evolution. He argued that criminals are biologically different from non-criminals.
• Atavistic Features: According to Lombroso, criminals possess certain physical anomalies or
“stigmata” that resemble primitive humans or apes. These features, he believed, were signs of a person being less evolved and therefore more prone to criminal behaviour.
• Facial and Physical Characteristics: Lombroso identified a range of features he believed were
common among criminals, including:
• Large jaw or cheekbones
• Asymmetrical face
Excessive arm length
• Prominent brow ridges
• Large or protruding ears
• Eye defects or peculiarities
• He also associated these physical traits with behavioural tendencies towards ‘ impulsiveness, and lack of moral sense, which he claimed were indicators of a predisposition to crime.
Lombroso classified criminals into categories based on their physical features and bet tendencies, such as “born criminals,” “criminaloids” (those who became criminal: environmental factors), and “occasional criminals.”
• Lombroso conducted studies on prison inmates, claiming to find a higher incidence of features among them compared to the general population. He argued that these physi were reliable indicators of an individual’s potential for criminal behaviour.
Briefly analyse how one physiological theory of criminality can be
applied to the domestic violence scenario.
After being married for five years, one spouse has noticed their
partner becoming increasingly controlling, monitoring phone calls
and restricting interactions with friends and family. The situation
has escalated to physical abuse during arguments. The abusive
partner is muscular, with very little body fat, strong, and has broad
shoulders, which intimidates the victim and makes them feel
powerless. Despite the abuse and the partner’s intimidating physical
presence, the victim has not reported it to the authorities.
• Physical Description of the Abusive Partner: The abusive partner in the scenario is described as muscular, strong, and with broad shoulders, fitting the mesomorphic body type according to Sheldon’s classification.
• Association with Aggressive Behaviour: Sheldon’s theory suggests that mesomorphs are predisposed to aggressive and domineering behaviour. This could help explain the partner’s controlling actions and escalation to physical abuse, as they might be more inclined to use their physical strength to exert power and control.
• Intimidation Factor: The muscular build and physical presence of the abusive partner likely contribute to their ability to intimidate the victim. The theory would argue that mesomorphs’ physical attributes provide them with a sense of power, making them more likely to engage in and feel justified in using physical violence.
Examine the strengths and weaknesses of two biological theories in
explaining causes of criminality.
• Sheldon’s Somatotypes Theory:
• Strengths:
• Empirical Research: Sheldon’s research on body types and their correlation with personality
traits provided some empirical basis for linking physique to behaviour. He conducted studies
on prison populations that showed a higher presence of mesomorphic body types, suggesting a possible link to criminal behaviour.
• Focus on Physical Characteristics: The theory provides a straightforward and observable method for identifying potential behavioural tendencies based on physical characteristics, which could be useful in early identification and intervention strategies.
Weaknesses:
Deterministic: The theory suggests that physical appearance predetermines behaviour, ignoring the influence of social, environmental, and psychological factors on criminality.
• Lack of Scientific Rigour: Modern research has not consistently replicated Sheldon’s findings, and his methods are often criticised for lacking scientific rigour. The association between body type and criminal behaviour is seen as too simplistic.
Ethical Concerns: The theory could lead to stereotyping and discrimination based on physical appearance, potentially labelling individuals as criminals purely due to their body type.
• Lombroso’s Theory of Atavism
• Strengths:
• Historical Significance: Lombroso’s work was pioneering in shifting the focus of criminology towards scientific investigation and biological explanations for criminal behaviour, laying the groundwork for modern criminology.
• Physical Indicators: The theory provided a way to identify criminals based on physical traits, which was a novel approach at the time and initiated more systematic studies of the criminal population.
• Weaknesses:
• Biological Determinism: Lombroso’s theory implies that criminality is predetermined by physical traits, neglecting social, economic, and environmental influences that are critical in understanding criminal behaviour.
• Lack of Empirical Support: Subsequent research has failed to consistently validate Lombroso’s claims, with no conclusive evidence supporting the idea that certain physical features are indicators of criminal tendencies.
Ethical Issues: The theory promotes the idea of inherent criminality based on appearance which could lead to prejudice and profiling, as well as ignoring the rehabilitation potential of offenders.
• Jacob’s XYY Theory
: Senetic Explanation: Provides a genetic basis for criminal behaviour, suggesting that
chromosomal abnormalities, like the XYY syndrome, could predispose individuals to aggressive behaviour.
• Research Support: Some studies have indicated a higher prevalence of the XYY chromosome pattern in prison populations, providing some support for the theory.
• Weaknesses:
• Inconsistent Findings: Research findings on XYY syndrome and its link to criminality are mixed, with many studies finding no significant correlation between XYY syndrome and increased violent or criminal behaviour.
• Over-Simplification: The theory suggests a single genetic anomaly can explain complex behaviours like criminality, disregarding the multifaceted nature of criminal behaviour influenced by social and environmental factors.
• Stigmatisation: Labelling individuals with XYY syndrome as potential criminals can lead to social stigma and discrimination.
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Sex Hormone Theory:
Strengths:
Biological Basis: The theory is grounded in established biological research showing that hormones like testosterone influence aggression levels, potentially leading to criminal behaviour. This is supported by evidence that hormonal imbalances can affect mood and behaviour.
• Case Studies: Examples like PMT (premenstrual tension) and post-natal depression have been linked to changes in mood and behaviour, which sometimes lead to criminal acts,
thus
supporting the theory that hormonal changes can impact behaviour.
• Weaknesses:
• Reductionist Approach: The theory oversimplifies the complex causes of criminal behaviour by attributing it mainly to hormonal imbalances, ignoring psychological, social, and environmental factors.
Generalisation Issues: While hormonal changes can influence behaviour, not everyone witr high testosterone levels or hormonal imbalances engages in criminal behaviour. Therefore,
using this as a general explanation for criminality is limited.
• Gender Bias: The theory may lead to gender-based assumptions, potentially suggesting that males with higher testosterone or women experiencing hormonal changes are more prone to criminality, reinforcing stereotypes.
Briefly explain how interactionism accounts for criminality.
• Interactionism is a sociological perspective that focuses on how individuals interact with each other and society, and how these interactions influence behaviour. It suggests that criminality is not inherent but is learned and reinforced through social interactions.
• Labelling Theory: One of the key concepts in interactionism is labelling theory, which posits that individuals become criminal when significant others or society label them as such. Once labelled, individuals may internalise this label and act accordingly.
• Social Construction of Crime: According to interactionism, what is considered criminal is defined by society and varies across different cultures and time periods. Crime is seen as a social construct, not a fixed or objective reality.
• Role of Social Reactions: Interactionism emphasises the role of society’s reactions in defining what is criminal. If society labels a person or behaviour as deviant, that label influences how the individual is perceived and treated.
• Self-fulfilling Prophecy: Interactionists argue that individuals may engage in criminal behaviour as a result of being labelled. This can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where the individual adopts a deviant identity and behaviour in response to societal expectations.
Primary and Secondary Deviance: Edwin Lemert distinguished between primary deviance (initial act of rule-breaking) and secondary deviance (deviance that results from being
labelled). Interactionism suggests that societal reaction to primary deviance can lead to secondary deviance.
Juvenile Delinquency: Labelling theory explains why some juveniles may turn to criminality after being labelled as “delinquents” by authorities, teachers, or peers, leading them to associate with others who reinforce the criminal identity.
Explain how newspaper campaigns have affected policy making.
• Newspaper campaigns are efforts by media outlets to bring attention to particular issues, often through a series of articles, editorials, and public appeals. These campaigns can influence public opinion and pressure policymakers to introduce or amend legislation.
• Newspapers act as a bridge between the public and policymakers, highlighting social issues, raising awareness, and advocating for changes that align with public sentiment.
News of the World - Sarah’s Law:
• Following the abduction and murder of eight-year-old Sarah Payne in 2000, the News of the World launched a campaign for a law to allow parents access to information about known sex offenders in their area.
• The campaign led to the introduction of “Sarah’s Law” in the UK, officially known as the Child Sex Offender Disclosure Scheme. It allows parents to ask police if someone with access to their child has a history of child sexual offences.
• The success of this campaign shows how media pressure can lead to significant legislative changes aimed at protecting vulnerable populations.
Northern Echo - Year and a Day Rule:
• The Northern Echo campaigned to change the “Year and a Day Rule,” which stated that a death could not be legally attributed to an assault if the victim died more than a year and a day after the incident.
• The campaign highlighted cases where victims died after this period, and offenders could not be prosecuted for murder. In response, the UK government abolished the rule in 1996, allowing prosecutions regardless of the time between injury and death.
• This example illustrates how targeted campaigns can bring about changes in outdated legal
provisions
Daily Mail - Campaign against Dangerous Dogs:
• Following a series of high-profile dog attacks, the Daily Mail launched a campaign to address the issue of dangerous dogs. It called for stricter controls on dog ownership and tougher penalties for owners of dangerous breeds
• The campaign contributed to public pressure for the introduction of the Dangerous Dogs Act
1991, which banned certain breeds and imposed stricter regulations on dog ownership.
• This demonstrates how media campaigns can lead to new legislation aimed at public safety.
The Sun - Justice for the 96 (Hillsborough Disaster):
• After the tragic Hillsborough disaster in 1989, The Sun initially faced backlash for its reporting.
However, in subsequent years, various newspapers, including The Sun, called for justice for the victims, highlighting cover-ups and the need for accountability.
• These campaigns kept public attention on the issue, leading to new inquiries, the quashing of previous verdicts, and official apologies from the government and police.
• The ongoing media attention resulted in the establishment of the Hillsborough Independent Panel in 2009, which eventually led to revised inquests and acknowledgment of police and governmental failures.
Briefly evaluate the use of social networking in campaigns for
change.
Strengths:
• Wide Reach and Accessibility: Social networking platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram have a global reach, allowing campaigns to spread quickly and reach a large audience. They enable individuals and groups to mobilise support and raise awareness effectively.
• Cost-Effective: Compared to traditional campaigning methods, using social media is relatively low-cost, making it accessible for grassroots movements and smaller organisations with limited budgets.
• Engagement and Interaction: Social networks allow for real-time interaction, enabling campaign organisers to engage directly with the public, gather feedback, and respond quickly to events. This interaction can create a sense of community and shared purpose.
• Viral Potential: Social networking can amplify campaigns rapidly as users share content, leading to viral phenomena. Hashtags, videos, and posts can gain momentum, drawing attention to specific causes and increasing public pressure on policymakers.
• Weaknesses:
• Echo Chambers and Misinformation: Social networking can lead to echo chambers where users only interact with like-minded individuals, limiting the diversity of viewpoints and potentially spreading misinformation. This can distort the understanding of the issue and polarise public opinion.
Lack of Depth: Social media often prioritises quick,
catchy content over in-depth analysis,
which can lead to oversimplification of complex issues. Important nuances may be lost,
affecting the quality of debate and understanding.
• Trolling and Online Harassment: Campaigns on social media can be derailed by trolls and online harassment, which can intimidate activists and dissuade participation. This toxic environment can undermine the credibility and impact of a campaign.
Short Attention Span: The fast-paced nature of social media means that public interest in a campaign can be fleeting. While a campaign may trend for a short time, maintaining long-term engagement and commitment can be challenging.
Identify two demographic changes that may affect policy
development.
• Ageing population
Rising ethnic diversity
Urbanisation
• Increasing single-person households
Youth population growth
Changing family structures
• Gender role shifts
• Rise in mental health awareness
Assess the use of sociological theory in informing policy
development.
Merton’s Strain Theory:
• Merton’s theory suggests that crime results from the strain individuals feel when they cannot
achieve societal goals through legitimate means.
• Tackling Poverty: Implementing policies aimed at reducing poverty and economic inequality
can address the root causes of strain.
• Education Opportunities: Expanding access to education and vocational training helps provide
legitimate pathways to success.
• Prison Education: Providing educational programmes within prisons to reduce recidivism and
improve reintegration prospects.
WJEC Level 3 Criminology Unit 2
• Example: The development of government-funded educational initiatives for at-risk youth and prison-based educational schemes.
Subcultural Theories:
These theories propose that criminal behaviour is a result of individuals conforming to the values of subcultures that oppose mainstream norms.
• Community Support: Investing in community programmes that offer positive role models and activities can counteract subcultural influences.
• Youth Engagement: Creating alternative activities and mentoring programmes to redirect
young people from deviant subcultures.
• Example: The establishment of community centres offering sports, arts, and mentorship to prevent gang involvement.
Labelling Theory:
Labelling theory argues that criminal behaviour is not inherent but is defined by societal reactions and labels. Once labelled, individuals may adopt the criminal identity.
• Decriminalisation: Reforming laws to decriminalise certain behaviours that are minor or victimless, thereby reducing the negative impact of labels.
Diversion Policies: Implementing diversion programmes that redirect individuals away from ne criminal justice system towards support services.
Example: The diversion of first-time offenders into rehabilitation programmes rather than prison, and the decriminalisation of drug use in certain jurisdictions.
Right Realism:
• Right realism focuses on practical measures to prevent crime through deterrence, control, and enhancing social order.
• Situational Crime Prevention: Implementing measures that reduce opportunities for crime, such as improved street lighting and CCTV.
• Environmental Crime Prevention:
Designing urbanenvironments to
reduce crime
opportunities, such as defensible space designs.
• Penal Populism and Imprisonment: Adopting harsher sentencing policies and expanding prison
capacity to deter and incapacitate offenders.
• Example: The introduction of “broken windows” policing and the expansion of CCTV
surveillance in high-crime areas.
Left Realism:
• Left realism addresses the social inequalities and exclusion that contribute to criminal
behaviour, advocating for policies that focus on social justice and community involvement
• Reducing Inequality: Policies aimed at reducing social and economic inequalities to tackle the root causes of crime.
• Democratic Policing: Implementing community-oriented policing that builds trust and cooperation between police and local communities.
• Multi-Agency Working: Collaborating across various agencies (e.g., social services, schools, police) to address the broader social issues related to crime.
• Example: The development of multi-agency partnerships to address youth crime and improve community safety, and initiatives aimed at reducing poverty and increasing social welfare.
