Paper 1- Topic 2 Memory Flashcards
Define coding
the process of converting information between stores
Describe the research on coding
Findings
Baddeley
- showed a list of words to 4 groups
- one group shown semantically similar words, one group semantically dissimilar, one acoustically similar and one acoustically dissimilar
- when asked to recall words immediately they recalled less acoustically similar words
- when asked to recall words after 20 mins they recalled less semantically similar words
- shows that info is coded acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM
Describe research on capacity
Jacob’s digit span test
- research reads out an increasing number of digits and the P repeats them back, until the P fails to recall them correctly
- mean digit span was 9.3
- mean letter span was 7.3
•Millers magic number 7
-STM can hold 7 +- 2 memories
Describe research in duration of STM
Peterson and Peterson
- 24 students tested over a number of trials
- student given a consonant syllable (e.g. YCB) to recall after 3,6,9,12,15 seconds
- told to count backwards from a random number to prevent mental rehearsal
- found recall after 3 second was 80% but after 18 seconds it was 3 % (STM duration is 18 secs unless rehearsal is used)
Describe research into duration of LTM
Bahrick et al
- studied about 400 Americans with large age spread
- asked to recall their high school classmates through: photo recognition and free recall (name as many in your class as you can)
- P’s within 15 years of graduation 90% were accurate in photo recognition
- P’s within 50 years of graduation 70% were accurate in photo recognition
- free recall declined from 60% to 30% for P’s 15 years and 50 years since graduation
- shows that LTM may last up to a lifetime
Describe the sensory register in the multi store model
- all stimuli from environment passes into it
- unwanted info doesn’t pass further into the memory system (selective attention)
- has 5 sensory memory stores, one for each sense
e. g. visual info is coded into the iconic memory
e. g. sound info is coded into the echoic memory - duration for sensory register is half a second and it has a very high duration
Describe the short term memory in the multi store model
- info coded acoustically
- lasts 18 seconds
- limited capacity (7+-2)
- maintenance rehearsal keeps info in the STM
Describe the long term memory in the multi store model
- coded semantically
- duration is up to lifetime
- unlimited capacity
- info being recalled from LTM into the STM is called retrieval
- prolonged rehearsal passes info into LTM
3 LTM Stores
episodic memory
semantic memory
procedural memory
what is episodic memory
examples
ability to remember events (episodes) from our lives
- time stamped
- consciously recalled
E.G. holiday, birthday, concert
what is semantic memory
examples
our knowledge of the world
- your dictionary and encyclopaedia
- not time stamped
someone’s name
your opinions
Capital cities
What is procedural memory
Examples
memory for how we do things- actions or skills (a procedure)
-require very little conscious recall
riding a bike
baking a cake
what does the working memory model show
what are the 5 components
how the STM is organised and how it functions
central executive visuo-spatial sketchpad episodic buffer phonological loop LTM
Function of the central executive
monitors incoming data and allocates slave systems to the data
function of the phonological loop
stores auditory information
phonological store- stores words you hear
articulatory control system- allows maintenance rehearsal (hold up to two seconds worth of what you say)
function of visuo-spatial sketchpad
stores visual and spatial information
limited capacity of 3 or 4 objects
-split into visual cache (stores visual data) and inner scribe (the arrangements of the object in visual field)
function of the episodic buffer
- temporary store for information that integrates all the visual, spatial and verbal processes
- it links the working memory to LTM and cognitive processes like perception
define interference
when one memory blocks another and leads to one or both memories being forgotten or distorted
Describe research into forgetting through interference
McGeoch and McDonald
-gave P’s a list of words until they were 100% accurate at recalling
-gave them a second list to learn (e.g. synonyms, antonyms, unrelated words, random letters or digits and no new list)
-then had to recall first list
•found the more similar the lists were the greater the level of interference
Define retrieval failure
when you forget a memory because you don’t have the right cues needed to access
-memory is available but not accessible
define a cue
a trigger of information that allows us to access memory
can be direct (e.g. mnemonics) or indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning (e.g. internal- emotion, drunk) or (external- environment)
What is Tulving’s Encoding Specificity Principle
- if a cue is to be successful it must be present at learning of the memory and retrieval of the memory
- if cues at encoding and retrieval are different, forgetting will occur
what is context dependent forgetting
When we forget information because the contextual cues (e.g. environment, smells) present when retrieval occurs are different to those present at learning
what is state dependent forgetting
we forget information as our internal state is different at recall to the state at learning
study involving context dependent forgetting
Baddeley
- taught 4 groups of divers information either underwater or on land and asked for recall in either underwater or land
- found recall was 40% lower in non matching conditions
- retrieval failure occurred as external cues available at learning were different to recall
study involving state dependent forgetting
Carter
- people were taught information either on drugs or not on drugs and asked to recall it on drugs or not on drugs
- when the states were the different for learning and recall, retrieval was significantly worse
define anxiety in relation to EWT
state of emotional and physical arousal
emotional aspects- tension, worry
physical aspects- sweating, increased heart rate
Describe the study where anxiety has a positive effect on recall
Yuille and Cutshall studied the witness of an actual shooting
-interviewed to recall events 5 months after and scale their level of stress at the time. Results were compared to original police interviews
Findings of Yuille and Cutshall study
-witness accounts were very accurate
-those with highest recorded stress were most accurate
88% accuracy compared to 75% for less stressed group
Findings of Johnson and Scott study
- 49% recognised the man holding pen
- 33% recognised the man holding bloody knife
- due to anxiety P focused on weapon (due to tunnel theory) so reduce recall of non central events
Describe the arousal curve and it’s link to accuracy of eye witness recall
Yerkes-Dodsons Law suggests that relationship between emotional arousal and performance is a inverted U
- witnessing a crime creates emotional and physiological (fight or flight) arousal
- lower levels of arousal produce less recall
- as levels of arousal increase so does recall, up to the optimum where after this recall drastically decreases
Define eye witness testimony
ability of people to remember the details of the events that they have observed
-accuracy of this recall can be influenced by misleading information and anxiety
define misleading information and two examples
incorrect information given to an eyewitness after the event which can affect their recall
e.g. leading questions and post event discussion
Describe the study where anxiety is shown to have a negative effect on recall
Johnson and Scott told P’s they were waiting to do a study but while waiting they were split into two conditions
- one group heard a casual conversation followed by someone walking out holding a pen
- other group heard a heated argument, glass breaking and a man left holding a bloody knife
-P’s were asked to pick the man out of 50 photos
describe research on leading questions
Loftus and Palmer
- 45 student P’s watched a clip of a car accident
- asked random questions and one critical (leading) question asking them to describe the speed of the car before the crash
- 5 groups had 5 different verbs in the question (smashed, hit, bumped, contacted, collided)
findings of Loftus and Palmer study
-when verb smashed was used, the mean estimated speed was 40 mph compared to the verb contacted estimating mean speeds of 31.8 mph
Two opposing explanations as to why leading questions affect eye witness testimony
- Response bias
- wording of question has no effect on the P’s memory but influences the way they answer the question - Substitution explanation
- the wording of question changes the P’s memory of the event
- In Loftus and Palmer’s second study they found that P’s who heard the word ‘smashed’ were more likely to report broken glass
define leading question
question which is written in away to suggest a certain answer for the respondent to give
e.g. what hand was the knife in?
describe research on post-event discussion
Gabbert et al
- P’s were paired and watched same crime from different angles and so saw different elements
- they discussed the events before they recalled
Findings of Gabbert et al study
-71% of P’s mistakenly recalled aspect they didn’t see but picked up in discussion compared to 0% in control group with no PED
define post event discussion
more than witness to an event discuss what they have seen with each other, which may influence the accuracy of their recall of the event
two explanations as to why post event discussion affects eye witness testimony accuracy
- Memory contamination- witnesses combine memories of other witnesses, and they are altered or distorted
- Memory conformity - witnesses go along with each other to gain approval or because they think they are right
Define a cognitive interview
a method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories
-uses four main techniques: re-instate the context, reverse the order, report everything, change perspective
Four techniques used in cognitive interviews
- Report Everything - no matter how trivial as could result in cues for other memories
- Reinstate the context- imagine environment of where event occurred and recall emotions (context dependent forgetting) may trigger cues for other memories
- Reverse the order- much harder to lie, prevents expectations of what must have happened
- Change perspective- perspective of different person, prevents use of schema and what must have happened
What changes were made in the Enhanced Cognitive Interview
- Fisher added elements focusing on the social interaction to make the witness more comfortable and less anxious
e. g. when to make eye contact, making witness speak slowly, minimising distractions, ask if more open needed questions
