Paper 1 (Social Influence, Psychopathology, Attachment and Memory) Flashcards
1
Q
What are the three different types of forms coding can be stored in?
A
Visual coding - Visual Images
Acoustic coding - Sounds
Semantic coding - Meaning
2
Q
What were the 4 list of words given to the 4 groups of participants in Baddeley’s coding experiment into STM?
A
Acoustically Similar
Acoustically Dissimilar
Semantically Similar
Semantically Dissimilar
3
Q
How does Baddeley’s experiment into coding of STM suggest we mainly encode things in the STM?
A
Acoustically
4
Q
How does Baddeley’s experiment into coding of the LTM suggest we mainly encode things in the LTM?
A
Semantically
5
Q
Who found the maximum amount of ‘items’ we can hold in our STM, and what did he call it?
A
Miller (1956), The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
6
Q
What did Miller believe our STM stores information in as it allows us to recall things such as mobile phone numbers, and other pieces of information containing more than 7 digits or letters?
A
Chunks
7
Q
Who disagreed with Miller in terms of how many chunks the STM can hold and how many did they believe the STM can hold?
A
Cowan (2001), 4 chunks
8
Q
Who studied the duration of STM?
A
Peterson and Peterson
9
Q
How long did Peterson and Peterson find that the STM could hold information for?
A
15-30 seconds
10
Q
Who studied the duration of LTM?
A
Bahrick et al
11
Q
Who were the 4 key people in the coding, capacity and duration of the STM and LTM?
A
Baddeley, Miller, Peterson and Peterson
12
Q
Who developed the Multi-store model of memory?
A
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
13
Q
What are the 3 sections of the MSM?
A
Sensory Register, STM store and LTM store
14
Q
How long is information stored in the Sensory Register and where is the information from?
A
The environment and it lasts approximately less than one second
15
Q
What are the two main sections in the sensory register and how is the information encoded?
A
Ionic Memory (Visually encoded)
Echoic Memory (Acoustically Encoded)
16
Q
How does the MSM work together to store information into the long term memory?
A
Environmental Stimuli is absorbed into the Sensory Register, this only lasts for less than 1 second meaning for it to be moved into the STM store the information needs to be paid attention to. The STM only has a duration of 15-30 seconds, so to move this into the LTM store then we need to use maintenance rehearsal, and to bring this back into the STM store we need to retrieve the information.
17
Q
Who came up with the idea of Serial Position Effect?
A
Glanzer and Cunitz
18
Q
What was the Serial Position Effect?
A
When people were given words greater than the capacity of STM and when they recalled the words there was better recall at the beginning and end rather than in the middle.
19
Q
Who were the two case studies of the MSM?
A
Patients KF and HM
20
Q
What criticism did Craik and Watkins (1973) have of the MSM and rehearsal?
A
They said that there is 2 types of rehearsal: Maintenance (keeping it in the STM) and Elaborative (linking new information to existing knowledge.
21
Q
Who developed the Working Memory Model (WMM)?
A
Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
22
Q
What are the five key sections of the WMM?
A
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (VSS), Episodic Buffer, Central Executive, LTM and Phonological Loop (PL)
23
Q
What does the Phonological Loop split into?
A
Articulatory Control System and Phonological Store
24
Q
What is the role of the VSS?
A
Act as the inner eye and has a capacity of 3-4 items
25
What is the role of the Episodic Buffer?
Facilitates communication between the CE and the LTM, it has a capacity of 4 chunks
26
What is the role of the Central Executive?
Has a limited capacity, it decides where the information goes to, it allocates specific slave systems, it is an attentional process that monitors incoming data
27
What is the role of the Central Executive?
Has a limited capacity, it decides where the information goes to, it allocates specific slave systems, it is an attentional process that monitors incoming data
28
What is the role of the Phonological Loop and the parts it splits into?
Phonological Loop (Deals with auditory information, it has a limited capacity.
Phonological Store (Stores the auditory information)
Articulatory Control System (Allows for maintenance rehearsal to take place.
29
What are the 3 types of LTM?
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Procedural Memory
30
What is Episodic Memory?
Memories we have to consciously recall from our experiences and past events, such as a wedding day.
31
What is Semantic Memory?
Memories which have been taught to us, such as London is the capital of England.
32
What is Procedural Memory?
Memories we we learn how to do something (action or skill), such as riding a bike.
33
What are the 2 types of interference?
Proactive and Retroactive
34
What is Proactive interference?
Old information replacing new information
35
What is Retroactive interference?
New information replacing old information.
36
What did Tulving (1983) suggest?
If cues at encoding are different or absent when recalling then there will be some forgetting.
37
What was Carter and Cassaday's (1998) research?
2 groups of ppts were given antihistamine tablets to learn words on and 2 were not given them to learn on then one group who had learnt on the tablets, were given them to recall and the other group was not. One group who had learnt without the tablets was given the tablets to recall the other group were not. They found that those who had learnt and recalled in the same internal state had better recall than those who didn't.
38
What was Godden and Baddeley's (1975) research?
4 groups of deep sea divers, working underwater, were given words to remember in given conditions (underwater or on land) then they were asked to recall in either the same condition or opposite condition, 2 groups were recalling on the opposite condition and 2 were recalling in the same condition. They found that those recalling in the same condition they learnt the words in had better recall than those who didnt.
39
Who did research into Leading Questions?
Loftus and Palmer (1974).
40
What was Loftus and Palmer's (1974) experiment?
They got people to watch video of a car accident, they were then given different verbs in the question of 'about how fast were the cars going when they smashed/collided/bumped/hit/contacted into each other?' they found that the difference in the verbs made a difference in the speed estimated.
41
What was Gabbert's (2003) experiment?
Participants were in pair, but shown different perspectives of a crime and were then to discuss what they had seen. This led to 71% of ppts recalling events they didn't see but heard from their partner. Gabbert then concluded that witnesses may go along with each other for social approval or they believe that the other witness is right and they're wrong.
42
Who researched into Weapon Focus Effect?
Johnson and Scott (1976)
43
What was Johnson and Scott's (1976) study?
Ppts were sat in a waiting room expecting to take part in a lab study, they heard an argument in a nearby room, and then saw a man carrying either a bloody knife (high anxiety) or a greasy pen (low anxiety). After being later asked to identify the man in a photo, the accuracy in the greasy pen condition (49%) was 16% higher than that of the bloody knife condition (33%).
44
What did Johnson and Scott (1976) find about anxiety levels and recall accuracy?
Higher levels of anxiety leads to a worse recall accuracy.
45
What was Yuille and Cutshall (1986)?
They conducted a study in a gun shop in Canada, where a thief was shot dead by the owner, witnesses were interviewed by the police. 13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study which led to them being interviewed again 4-5 months later. They were also asked to rate their levels of stress on a 7-point scale. Witnesses were extremely accurate on their account, those who reported the the highest level of stress (88%) had 13% higher accuracy than the lesser stressed group (75%).
46
What is a cognitive interview?
An interviewing method which attempts to help increase the accuracy in Eye Witness Testimonies.
47
What are the 4 techniques of Cognitive Interviews?
Context Reinstatement, Recall in Reverse Order, Recall from Changed Perspective and Report Everything.
48
What are the 3 types of conformity?
Compliance, Identification and Internalisation.
49
What is the definition of the 3 types of conformity?
Compliance - Going along with others opinions but disagreeing in private.
Identification - Changing opinions publicly when with the group as there is something valued there.
Internalisation - When the opinion is changed privately and publicly.
50
What are the 2 types of influence?
Normative and Informational
51
What did Deutsch and Gerard (1955) identify?
2 explanations for conformity: Normative and Informational influence.
52
What is Normative Influence?
Following the crowd to have the same opinion as what is seen as the 'norm' to avoid being rejected. Only affects public belief.
53
What is Informational Influence?
Accepting the majority opinion based on the fact they believe the group has greater knowledge than themselves.
54
What type of experiment was Asch's Line study?
Lab Study
55
What were the 3 variations of Asch's Line Study?
Group Size, Unanimity and Task Difficulty
56
What % of Asch's participants conformed every time?
5%
57
What % of Asch's participants conformed at least once?
75%
58
What demographic were Asch's participants and how many was there?
123 US Male students
59
What was the aim of Zimbardo's (1971) Stanford Prison Experiment?
Investigate how willingly people would conform to social roles, such as prisons and guards.
60
How long did Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment last in comparison to how long it was meant to last?
It lasted 6 days rather than the intended 1-2 weeks.
61
How many participants was there in Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment and what was the demographic?
24 Male US College Students
62
How much were the participants in Zimbardo's Stanford Prison experiment paid each day?
$15
63
How did Zimbardo get his participants for his Stanford Prison Experiment?
He put up an advertisement to ask for volunteers to participate in a study of the psychological effects of prison life
64
What did Zimbardo find in his Stanford Prison Experiment?
Both guards and prisoners conformed to their roles, with guards doing so with more ease.
65
What was Zimbardo's conclusion from his Stanford Prison Experiment?
He concluded that people were quick to conform to social roles, even if in ordinary situations they wouldn't agree with it moraly.
66
What are some of the ethical issues with Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment?
Lack of Informed Consent
Lack of Right to Withdraw
Lack of Protection from Harm
Zimbardo lost Objectivity
Any psychological damage done to participants may not be able to be completely removed.
67
What was the aim of Milgram's Shock Study?
To investigate someone's obedience to an authority figure.
68
What was the demographic of Milgram's participants and how many was there?
40 Males between the age of 20-50.
69
How many participants in Milgram's study continued on to the highest voltage (450V)?
65% (2/3)
70
How many participants continued to 300V during Milgram's Shock Study?
100%
71
What did the participants believe Milgram's experiment was?
A memory experiment where they were the 'teacher' and the confederates were the 'learners' and if the learner made a mistake then they would administer a 'shock' increasing the voltage every time.
72
What % of Participants in Milgram's study administered 450V when the victim was silent throughout?
100%
73
What % of Participants in Milgram's study administered 450V when the study was performed in a run down office block?
48%
74
What % of Participants in Milgram's study administered 450V when the participant and victim were in the same room?
40%
75
What % of Participants in Milgram's study administered 450V when the teacher forced the learners hand onto a shock plate?
30%
76
What % of Participants in Milgram's study administered 450V when the experimenter isn't present physically but phones in giving orders?
20.5%
77
What % of Participants in Milgram's study administered 450V when there was confederates who acted as teachers who also disobeyed?
10%
78
What % of Participants in Milgram's study administered 450V when the teacher only reads out the words and a confederate gives the shock?
92.5%
79
What is an agentic state?
When a person carries out actions based off orders by a authority figure, acting as their agent, with little to no personal responsibility.
80
What are the 3 factors for legitimacy of authority?
Proximity, Location and Uniform.
81
In Bickman's (1974) research into obedience, what were the % of obedience for the Guard, Milkman and Pedestrian?
Guard - 76%
Milkman - 47%
Pedestrian - 30%
82
Who invented the F-Scale?
Adorno et al (1950)
83
What was the demographic of people who Adorno investigated the cause of obedient personalities into?
Over 2000 middle-class white Americans
84
What is the definition of Authoritarian Personality?
A personality type which is more likely for someone to obey people in authority positions, suggestions say that it comes from strict parenting.
85
What are the 2 main ways in which resistance to Social Infuence can occur?
Social Support
Locus of Control
86
What is Social Support?
A form of resistance to Social Influence when there is already someone who disagrees with the majority then the people who disagree can come together to help.
87
What are the two types of Locus of Controls and their definitions?
Internal - We are in control of what happens in our life
External - Consider ourselves to be victims of events outside of our control
88
What are the 3 factors of Minority Influence?
Consistency, Commitment and Flexibility
89
What is the definition of Statistical Infrequecy?
When a person has a trait, thinking or behaviour which is seen as uncommon or rare, such as having a extremely high/low IQ
90
What is the definition of Deviation from Social Norms?
When someone acts out of the ordinary in comparison to what people would expect
91
What is the definition of Failure to Function Adequately?
When someone is unable to cope with demands of everyday life
92
What is the definition of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health?
When someone doesn't meet the correct 'criteria' to be declared with ideal mental health.
93
What is the definition of Phobias?
An irrational fear of an object or situation
94
What is the definition of a Specific Phobia?
A phobia of an object or a situation.
95
What is the definition of social phobia?
A phobia of a social situation
96
What is the definition of Agoraphobia?
A phobia of being outside or in a public place
97
What s the DSM-5?
5th version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder
98
What is the 2 process model?
Classical conditioning (acquiring the phobia)
Neutral Stimulus + Unconditioned Stimulus
Association turns Neutral Stimulus to the phobia (Conditioned Stimulus)
Operant Conditioning (maintaining the phobia)
This is when behaviour is reinforced , negative reinforcement is when the person avoids the situation at all costs, reduction in fear reinforces avoidance, maintaining the phobia
99
What are the 2 types of treatments for phobias?
Systematic Desensitisation and Flooding
100
What is Flooding?
Flooding is where a person is exposed to their phobic situation immediately, as it is the more extreme behavioural therapy
101
What is Systematic Desensitisation?
3 processes:
Anxiety Hierarchy - Ranking situations to do with the phobia from least to most frightening
Relaxation - Patient taught by therapist to relax as deeply as possible
Exposure - When in relaxed state move up the hierarchy
102
What are the 3 categories of characteristics of depression?
Cognitive,Emotional and Behvioural
103
What are the Behavioural Characteristics of Depression?
Disruption to sleep and eating behaviour, Aggression and Self-harm and Activity levels.
104
What are the Emotional Characteristics of Depression?
Anger, Lowered Self-esteem and Lowered Mood
105
What are the Cognitive Characteristics of Depression?
Absolutist Thinking, Poor Concentration and Attending to and Dwelling on the negative
106
What are the 3 parts of Beck's Cognitive Theory of Depression?
Faulty Information Processing, Negative Self-schemas and Negative Triad
107
What is meant by Faulty Information Processing as an explanation for depression?
Ignoring the positives and dwelling on the negative thoughts, having an absolutist thinking (black and white bad and good)
108
What is meant by Negative Self-schemas as an explanation for depression?
Negative thoughts about ourselves
109
What is meant by Negative Triad as an explanation for depression?
Negative thoughts about the world, the future and ourselves
110
What are the 3 stages of Ellis' ABC model?
Activating Event, Belief and Consequences
111
What is the aim of CBT?
Identify irrational negative thoughts and beliefs and replace them with positive ones
112
What are the two types of CBT?
Beck's Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Ellis' Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
113
What are the 3 types of disputing in CBT and their definition?
Empirical - Question patients to make them realise their beliefs/thoughts may not be consistent
Logical - Questions patients to emphasise their negative thoughts not following on logically from the information around them
Pragmatic - Questions patients to emphasise that their negative thinking isn't useful to them
114
What are strengths of CBT?
- Access online can be easier for some patients
- Can lead to patients to continue to challenge thoughts when therapy ends
- Evidence suggests it has a high success rate
- Most effective when its with drug therapy
115
What are weaknesses of CBT?
- Patients may struggle to verbalise their thoughts
- Patient may lack motivation to attend
- Easier option is drug therapy
- Doesn't work for everyone
116
What is the Behavioural characteristic of OCD?
Not eating well
117
What are the Emotional characteristics of OCD?
Worrying
Stressing
Anxiousness
Frustration
118
What are the Cognitive characteristics of OCD?
Overthinking
Conflicting thoughts
119
What is the genetic explanation for OCD?
Suggests that OCD is inherited from specific genes which cause it
120
What is the Neural explanation for OCD?
Focus on neurotransmitter and the brains structure
121
What is the role of Serotonin and its effects in OCD?
Regulate mood and lower levels of serotonin are associated with the symptoms of OCD, this can be caused by the SERT gene.
122
What is the effect of Dopamine in OCD?
It is believed that high levels of dopamine are associated, such as compulsive behaviour, with symptoms of OCD.
123
What are the 2 main brain regions involved with OCD and how are they involved?
Basal Ganglia - Coordination of movement
Orbitofrontal Cortex - PET scans found higher activity in orbitofrontal cortex in patients, with OCD.
124
What is the role of the SERT gene in OCD?
Linked to Serotonin, affects transportation of serotonin, causing lower levels of the neurotransmitter, associated with OCD.
125
What is the role of the COMT gene?
Linked to Dopamine, one variation results in the levels of dopamine increasing, and it is more common in patients with OCD.
126
What is the most commonly used therapy for OCD and what does it assume?
Drug Therapy, it assumes that there is a chemical imbalance in the brain.
127
What can drug therapy do for OCD as a treatment?
Increase or decrease the levels of either Serotonin or Dopamine in the brain.
128
What is another type of biological treatment for OCD?
SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors), they prevent too much serotonin from being reabsorbed into the pre-synaptic neuron.
129
What is the role of the father?
Act as a playmate as the father is less important for future attachment than the mother.
130
What was Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) study find?
Majority of babies became attached to their mother after 7 months and then began to form secondary attachment to other families such as, the father, 75% of the infants they studied had an attachment with their father by 18 months.
131
What did Grossman (2002) study find?
Quality of infant attachment with mothers related to the quality of attachments in adolescence, and that father's play with the infant related to quality of attachments in adolescence.
132
What are the definition of stranger and separation anxiety?
Stranger Anxiety: When the infant feels stress when with a stranger
Separation Anxiety: When the infant feels stress when separated from their primary caregiver
133
What was Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) study?
A sample of 60 babies from working-class families in Glasgow, 31 male and 29 females.
Babies and mothers were visited monthly over the first 18 months of their lives.
The researchers got the mother to answer questions about 7 everyday separations and how their infant would react.
The researchers also studied how the infants would react during stranger anxiety.
134
What are some potential issues of Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) study?
Social Desirability Bias - This could occur as the way the got the information was through the mother answering questions and they could want for their baby to come across how the researchers wanted, such as by lying.
Lack of Generalisability - This is because it is a sample only using infants from Glasgow and from working class families, so it wouldn't be able to be generalised to infants from upper-class families in the US.
135
What are the 4 stages of attachment that Schaffer and Emerson found, and how long did they last?
Asocial - Birth to 6 weeks
Indiscriminate - 6 weeks - 6 months
Specific - 7 months - 10/11 months
Multiple - 10/11+ months
136
What is the Asocial stage of attachment?
Infants having the same response to all objects human or not. Reciprocity and Interactional Synchrony play a role on developing the infants relationship with others.
137
What is the Indiscriminate stage of attachment?
There is a preference shown by the infant for humans and will recognise and prefer familiar adults. Do not usually show separation and stranger anxiety.
138
What is the Specific stage of attachment?
Majority of infants express stranger and separation anxiety. Not always caregiver who spends most time with them is the primary attachment figure, but the one who has the more meaningful interactions.
139
What is the Multiple stage of attachment?
After the main attachment is formed the infant will then form more attachment with other major caregivers, such as the father, and non-caregivers ,such as siblings and other children. These secondary attachments are formed within a year for 75% of infants.
140
What are the 2 different animal studies in attachment?
Harlow's monkey study and Lorenz's geese study.
141
What did Lorenz's study find?
Naturally hatched baby goslings followed their mother immediately after birth, whereas those hatched in an incubator would follow Lorenz. This happened again when they were released from an upturned box and these bonds were irreversible. He also found that after the goslings were imprinted to humans, that as adult birds, they would attempt to mate with humans. He concluded that this shown how quickly animals form attachments.
142
What is Imprinting?
When animals such as birds, which are mobile from birth, will follow the first object they see, forming an attachment.
143
What was Harlow's monkey Study?
He started the study to investigate whether food or comfort was the most important thing in forming a bond.
He got 16 baby monkeys and made 2 wire-model 'mothers', one of these was given cloth covering and the other given food (dispensable milk). The baby monkeys would go to the cloth covered wire mother whenever they were frightened whether or not it had food, which shows that comfort is more important than food in regards to forming an attachment.
144
What are the 5 parts to Bowlby's Monotropic Theory?
Social Releasers
Critical Period
Adaptive
Monotropic
Internal Working Model
145
What is meant by Social Releasers?
Innate behaviours of an infant which encourage attention from adults, such as smiling and cooing. These releasers will activate the adult attachment system.
146
What is meant by Critical Period?
If an infant hasn't formed a primary attachment within 2 years then it will become much harder for them to form one later on in life.
147
What is meant by Adaptive, in Bowlby's Monotropic Theory?
Bowlby suggested attachment is a vital adaptive quality, which evolved to increase survival chances via proximity-seeking behaviour. Imprinting and attachment evolved as they ensure infants stay close to primary caregivers to limit risks of hazards.
148
What is meant by Monotropic?
The most important attachment with the primary caregiver, doesn't have to be biological mother, and the longer the time spent with them the better.
149
What is meant by the Internal Working Model?
The infant will base their future relationship off a mental image of their relationship with primary caregiver. Also affects child's ability to later be a parent themselves due to basing parental behaviour off of how they were parented.
