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psychology > Paper 1 - Research Methods > Flashcards

Paper 1 - Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 4 methods of research ?

A

self report, observation, experiment and correlation.

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2
Q

What is a self report ?

A

Any data collection that involves asking people to report their thoughts, feelings and behaviours.

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3
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of a self report ?

A
  • they give first hand accounts.
  • they may not be accurate as people may not know why they do or feel things. also people may give demand characteristics or put a good impression across.
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4
Q

What is a questionnaire ?

A

Respondents record their own answers to a set of fixed questions (predetermined) in written form.

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5
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires

A
  • can be easily repeated so that days can be collected from large numbers of people, relatively cheap and quickly. Respondents may feel more willing to reveal personal/confidential information in a questionnaire compared to an interview.
  • the sample may be biased as only a certain type of person will fill in a questionnaire- liberate people who are willing to spend their free time filling it in.
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6
Q

what is a closed question ?

A

a question that has a fixed number of possible answers.

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7
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of closed questions ?

A
  • easy to analyse because it gives quantitative data which can be used to find averages and graphs which are generally easy to make conclusions from.
  • may not allow people to express their precise feelings so data may be low in validity.
  • oversimplifies reality and human experience because it suggests simple answers.
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8
Q

what’s an open question ?

A

a question where respondents are invited to provide their own answer

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9
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of open questions.

A
  • provided good detail on how people behave because they’re given the opportunity to express themselves without being limited to predetermined categories which can increase data validity.
  • more difficult to detect trends and draw conclusions because of the wide range of answers (qualitative data). Researchers may tend to look for trends rather than descriptive statistics.
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10
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of rating scales ?

A
  • reasonably objective way to represent feelings and attitudes towards a topic
    -provided quantitative data which is easy to draw graphs from and analyse.
  • respondents may go for the neutral option which may not reflect true feelings and may lower validity of the data.
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11
Q

how may clarity affect data of a questionnaire ?

A

if the respondent doesn’t understand the question they may give a meaningless answer which will decrease the validity of the data. this can be caused by double negatives, slang, ambiguous questions and double barrelled questions.

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12
Q

what types of bias may affect a questionnaires validity.

A

leading questions: questions that cause the respondent to lead towards an answer that’s desired by the researcher.
social desirability bias: giving a ‘good impression’ to the researcher.
This provides meaningless answers which decreases the validity of the data.

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13
Q

what’s a likert rating scale ?

A

allows respondents to state how much they agree or disagree with something.

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14
Q

what’s a semantic differential rating scale ?

A

measuring people’s attitudes towards something.

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15
Q

what are interviews ?

A

questions are verbally delivered in real time, respondents answer each question as it is presented by the interviewer.

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16
Q

what are advantages and disadvantages of interviews ?

A

the respondent can ask the interviewer questions eg explanation on a question. questions can be adapted during the interview.
people may reveal more information as a skilled interviewer can encourage a thorough response.
numbers are limited due to how much time they take and finding a skilled interviewer which are more expensive.

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17
Q

what’s a structured interview ?

A

predetermined questions are delivered by an interviewer who doesn’t prove beyond the answers given but can answer any questions given by the respondent.

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18
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of structured interviews ?

A
  • can be easily repeated. easy to analyse as answers are more predictive.
  • the interviewers expectations may influence the answers given by the respondent - interviewer bias.
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19
Q

what are semi structured interviews ?

A

some questions are predetermined but some questions can be developed as the interview proceeds.

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20
Q

what are unstructured interviewers ?

A

no questions are predetermined.

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21
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of semi and unstructured interviews ?

A

more detailed information can be obtained because questions are more specific to the participant
can access more information than a structured interview.
more affected by interviewer bias than structured interviews because new questions may be leading questions.
requires well trained interviewers which are more expensive.

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22
Q

what’s primary data ?

A

first hand days a researcher collected using a observation, self report or experiment.

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23
Q

what’s secondary data ?

A

second hand days. researchers may make use of data that’s already collected eg by the government

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24
Q

what’s inter rater reliability ?

A

the consistency between two different interviewers

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25
Q

why may inter rater reliability be low ?

A

if interviewers behave differently

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26
Q

how can inter rater reliability be evaluated ?

A

two or more interviews will question the same person and the data will be compared. if the scores are the same it’s reliable

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27
Q

what’s external reliability ?

A

the consistently of something overtime - wether something varies from one time to another.

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28
Q

how would you evaluate external reliability ?

A

test re test: give the same person the same psychological test on 2 occasions to see if the same results are obtained. the time between tests must be long enough that the participant cannot remember their previous answer but not too long that their behaviours and feelings have changed.

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29
Q

what’s internal reliability

A

a measure of wether a questionnaire(study) is consistent in itself.

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30
Q

how would you evaluate the internal reliability ?

A

split half method : the tests items are split into two halves and scores on both halves are compared. if the scores are similar it’s reliable.

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31
Q

what’s external validity ?

A

the extent to which the data from the study can be generalised beyond the study.

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32
Q

what are the types of validity within external validity and their meanings

A

population validity: the extent to which the data collected from a study can be generalised to other groups of people beyond the sample used.
ecological validity: the ability to generalise a research effect beyond the particular setting it occurred in compared to other real life settings.

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33
Q

what’s internal validity

A

concerns wether the test itself assessed what it’s intended to assess

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34
Q

what are the types of validity within internal validity and their meaning ?

A

face validity : wether the items on a test look like they asses what they intent to assess.
construct validity: wether the tests assessed the underlying concepts/ theories on that topic and the extent to which they’re represented on the questionnaire.
concurrent validity: concerns comparing the performance on a new test compared to a validated previous test on the same topic. if the data collected is similar the questionnaire had concurrent validity
criterion validity; concerns wether the data collected can predict a future behaviour/ attitude.

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35
Q

in a self report what may the reliability of someone’s answer be affected by

A

ambiguous questions - they may respond differently every time
change in attitudes toward something.

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36
Q

what are observations

A

watching or listening behaviour, recording it and looking for patterns. the observations can be put into categories

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37
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of observations ?

A
  • sometimes what people say they do is different to what they actually do so observations give a different outlook on behaviour compared to self reports.
  • covert observations allow for the collection of data without the participants knowing. this increases validity of the results as there are less demand characteristics.
  • observations cannot provide information for what people think or feel.
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38
Q

why do observations need systematic procedures ?

A

to make sure they’re objective.

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39
Q

what are behavioural categories in observations ?

A

objective methods to separate continuous streams of actions into components the categories are arranged as a list easy with a code frame.

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40
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of behavioural categories in observations

A
  • enables systematic observations to be made so important information isn’t overlooked
  • categories may not cover all possibilities so some behaviour may not be recited which lowers validity.
  • poorly designed coding frames reduces validity and reliability.
41
Q

What’s event sampling in observations ?

A

draw up a list of behavioural categories. then count every time each of the behaviours occur in a specific time period.

42
Q

what is time sampling in observations ?

A

recording behaviours at regular intervals or taking samples at certain times of the day or month.

43
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of event/time sampling ?

A
  • both methods make observations manageable, because your just taking a sample.
    -event sampling is useful when the behaviour to be recorded only happens occasionally.
  • time sampling allows for tracking of time related changes in behaviour.
  • observations may be missed if too many things happen at once, lowering validity
  • observations may not be representative
  • time sampling may decrease validity as important behaviour may be missed outside of the time intervals.
44
Q

what are controlled observations ?

A

some variables are changed by the researcher. controlled environment.

45
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of controlled observations ?

A
  • a controlled environment allows for a focus on particular aspect of behaviour.
  • environment may be unnatural and then participants may not show normal behaviour, lowering validity.
46
Q

what are naturalistic observations ?

A

the environment is unstructured but structured techniques may be used.

47
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observations ?

A
  • ecological validity as gives a realistic picture of natural behaviour.
  • participants may know they’re being watched leading to demand characteristics.
  • lack of control over other variables like extraneous variables.
48
Q

what are structured observations ?

A

a system is used to restrict and organise the collection of data.

49
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of structured observations ?

A
  • improves inter rater reliability as observations can be more consistent.
  • behaviour outside of the behaviour categories will not be recorded however this may still be relevant data, decreasing validity.
    collecting data is more complex and time consuming as there is a coding frame to follow.
50
Q

what is unstructured observations ?

A

all relevant data is collected with no system.

51
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of unstructured observations ?

A
  • observers may record what is more eye catching rather than most important or relevant as there are no behavioural categories as guidelines.
  • useful for unpredictable behaviour
  • simple and fast to collect.
52
Q

what are non participant observations ?

A

observer is not a participant in the behaviour being observed

53
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of non participant observations ?

A
  • more objective due to physical and psychological distance
  • observer may misinterpret the communication within the group as they’re an outside which will reduce validity.
54
Q

what are participant observations ?

A

observer is a participant in the behaviour being observed.

55
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of participant observations ?

A
  • likely to provide special insight into behaviour from an insider
    -Participants might suspect that the experimenter is acting suspicious or see that he is recording data, therefore they may guess the aims of the study and show demand characteristics.
56
Q

what are covert observations ?

A

the observation occurs without the participants knowledge.

57
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of covert observations ?

A
  • behaviour is more natural, increases validity
  • ethical concerns of deception and invasion of privacy
58
Q

what are overt observations ?

A

observations occur with the participants knowledge

59
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of overt observations ?

A
  • informed consent is included as they have a choice.
  • observer effect: participants may change their behaviour as they know they’re being watched
60
Q

what’s the independent variable ?

A

the factor that is directly manipulated by the experimenter in order to investigate the effect it has on the DV

61
Q

what’s meant by operationalisation ?

A

variables must be defined in a way that they can be easily tested.

62
Q

what’s meant by operationalisation ?

A

variables must be defined in a way that they can be easily tested.

63
Q

what’s an alternative hypothesis ?

A

a statement about the relationship between variables. it must be operationalised

64
Q

what’s a one tailed hypothesis ?

A

a statement that includes the direction of the difference in the hypothesis

65
Q

what’s a two failed hypothesis ?

A

just states that there’s a difference

66
Q

what’s a null hypothesis ?

A

a statement of no difference - don’t say relationship.

67
Q

what are repeated measures design ?

A

each participant takes part in all of the conditions of the experiment

68
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of repeated measures design ?

A
  • controls participant variables because the same people are tested
  • fewer participants are needed as only one sample is needed
  • order effects msg occur due to practise and bordemn
  • participants may guess the aim of the experiment because they’re completing all conditions making it easier for them to guess
  • one condition may be easier than the other
69
Q

what is independent measures design ?

A

each participant takes part in only one of the conditions in the experiment ?

70
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of independent measured design ?

A
  • avoids order effects as they only complete one condition
  • avoids the participants guessing the research aim
  • lack of control of participant variables
  • more participants are needed
71
Q

what is an experiment

A

a scientific method that involves the manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect.
looking for a casual relationship.

72
Q

what is matched participant design ?

A

participants who are similar in key variables are matched and complete different conditions of the experiment.

73
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of matched participant variables ?

A
  • time consuming to match the participants
  • reduces order effects as they only complete one condition
  • avoids the participants guessing the research aim
  • acts as a control of participant variables as they’re matched
  • may not control participant variables that are classed as irrelevant but are still important.
74
Q

what’s counterbalancing ?

A

reversing the order that the conditions are completed in in order to control order effects

75
Q

what are demand characteristic ?

A

if the participants know what is expected of them this may subconsciously change a participants behaviour. you could change this by using independent measures designs.

76
Q

what are extraneous variables and what do they include ?

A

any variables other than the IV that have the potential to effect the DV
participant variables: characteristics of the participant
situational variables: a feature of the environment that may effect performance.

77
Q

what are researcher effects ?

A

anything that the researcher does that had an effect on the participants performance

78
Q

what is observer effect ?

A

the presence of an observer effects the participants behaviour

79
Q

what’s a laboratory experiment ?

A

conducted in a very controlled environment eg a lab.

80
Q

what is researcher bias ?

A

a researchers expectations or beliefs may encourage certain behaviours in participants

81
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of laboratory experiment?

A
  • low ecological validity as it’s in an unnatural environment.
  • control of extraneous variables as it’s highly controlled
  • researcher bias/demand characteristics will lower validity
  • participants may be aware that they’re being tested.
  • can be easily replicated as environment can be controlled.
82
Q

what’s a field experiment?

A

conducted in an every day environment

83
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of field experiments?

A
  • high ecological validity
  • time consuming and expensive
  • avoids demand characteristics and researcher effect/ bias if participants are unaware they’re being studied
  • less control over extraneous variables
  • ethical issues if participants are unaware that they’re being studied - informed consent.
84
Q

what’s a quasi experiment ?

A

experimenter doesn’t directly manipulate the IV, it’s naturally occurring

85
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of quasi experiment ?

A
  • allows research where IV cannot be manipulated due to ethics or practical reasons.
  • enables psychologists to study real issues eg autism
  • participants may know that they’re being studied
  • less control of extraneous variables
  • cannot demonstrate casual relationships as the IV isn’t directly manipulated
86
Q

what is correlation ?

A

a way measuring the relationship between two co variables

87
Q

what are the advantages and disadvantages of correlation

A
  • looks at the relationship between continuous variables rather than the differences.
  • can determine if further investigation is justified as researchers can see how strong the relationship is between the co-variables
    -cannot show cause and effect relationship
  • there may be intervening variables causing the relationship
  • the method used to asses the co variables may lack in validity and reliability
88
Q

what types of correlation are there ?

A

positive, negative and no correlation.

89
Q

What are the four methods of sampling ?

A

Opportunity, self selected, snowball and random sampling

90
Q

What’s opportunity sampling and it’s advantages and disadvantages?

A

A Sample produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time
- takes less time to collect sample
- inevitably biased as only selecting a group of the target population.

91
Q

What’s random sampling and its advantages and disadvantages ?

A

Sample of participants produced by using a random technique, such that every member of the target population has an equal chance of being chosen eg, names out of a hat or a random number generator.
- unbiased as all members of the TP has an equal chance of being selected, however, a biased sample may occur as some people might disagree to take part.
- takes more time and effort as you need to obtain a lost of the TP, identify the sample and ask them to participate.

92
Q

What’s self selected sampling and it’s advantages and disadvantages?

A

A sample of participants produced by asking for volunteers, eg in a newspaper article
- a convenient way to find committed and willing participants
- participants are less likely to drop out as they volunteered
- biased because volunteer participants are likely to be more highly motivated or have more time on their hands than the population in total (volunteer bias).

93
Q

What’s snowball sampling and it’s advantages and disadvantages ?

A

Relies on referrals from initial participants to generate additional participants.
- enables a researcher to locate groups of people who are difficult to access.
- the sample isn’t likely to be a good cross sevruga from the population because it is friends of friends.

94
Q

What’s generalisability ?

A

Drawing conclusions about people from the research they conduct with a small sample. Can only be done if the sample is representative of the target population.

95
Q

What’s the scientific method ?

A
  1. make observations
    2.produce testable hypothesis
  2. Design a study
  3. Draw conclusions.
96
Q

Who is peer review done by ?

A

other psychologists in the same field.

97
Q

What the advantages/disadvantages of peer review being anonymous ?

A

-reviews can be objective.
-peers may sabotage other work as it is a competitive industry.

98
Q

what’s replicability ?

A

when repeated, should obtain the same results.

99
Q

what’s standardisation ?

A

ensuring that all procedures are the same so performances can be compared.

psychology (27 decks)

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