Paper 1 - Attachment Flashcards

Question

Role of the father - RTC by Macallum and Golombok - PEEL

Answer 1

• RTC Grossman’s research conducted by Macallum and Golombok • Grossman found that fathers, as secondary attachment figures, had an important and distinct role in their child’s development of play and stimulation • However, Macallum and Golombok have shown that children growing up in single-mother or lesbian-parent families do not develop any differently from those in two parent heterosexual families • Therefore, this suggests the father’s role may not be distinct • Limiting Grossman’s research

Answer 2

• Traditional gender roles could be the reason why fathers tend not to become the primary attachment figure • Or it could be that female hormones (oestrogen) create higher levels of nurturing • So, women are more biologically predisposed to be the primary attachment figure • Several explanations to consider when investigating role of the father

Answer 3

Lorenz - goslings Harlow - Baby rhesus monkeys

Answer 4

Aim: • To investigate the effects of ‘imprinting’ on Goslings Method: • Field Experiment Procedure: • Lorenz randomly divided the goose eggs • Half of the eggs were hatched with the mother goose in their natural environment • The other half were hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they saw was Lorenz • Lorenz recorded the behaviour of the Goslings – who they imprinted on Findings: • Group who saw Lorenz first – imprinted upon and followed him • Group who saw the mother goose first – imprinted upon and followed her • Lorenz identified a critical period – 12-17 hours after hatching – in which imprinting needed to take place • If imprinting did not occur within this period, Lorenz suggests that chicks will not attach themselves to a mother figure • Goslings who imprinted on humans would attempt to mate with humans when they’re older Conclusion: • Goslings imprint on the first moving object they see • There is a specific period in which this needs to take place • Otherwise, they will not attach/imprint

Answer 5

Aim: • To investigate whether food or comfort is more important in the formation of attachments Method: • Lab experiment Procedure: • 16 baby rhesus monkeys were separated from their mothers at birth and brought up in cages • Cages contained surrogate mothers – wire mother with milk and cloth mother with no milk • Amount of time spent with each mother was recorded • Monkeys were frightened with a loud noise to test which mother they preferred when stressed • Long term effects were recorded, such as sociability and relationships to their future offspring Findings: • Monkeys spent more time with cloth mother than wire mother • When frightened, monkeys would go to the cloth mother • Later in life, monkeys had emotional damage such as o being more timid o being easily bullied o difficulty mating o females being inadequate mothers when they were older. Conclusion: • Contact comfort is the most important factor when forming an attachment

Answer 6

:) Practical Applications :( Animal bias :( Researcher bias

Answer 7

• Practical applications • Principles of the research o that goslings had to imprint within 12-17 hours or would not imprint at all o that goslings who imprint on humans later show sexual behaviour towards humans when they are adult birds • shows importance of critical period on future relationships • Psychologists can use this information to promote importance of early interactions between parents and infants • and hopefully reduce issues later in life • Important part of applied psychology

Answer 8

• Animal bias • Conducted on animals (goslings) to investigate attachment • Potentially a problem as human attachment behaviour may be more complex than animal attachment behaviour • Human emotions are more complicated towards their offspring than birds’ • E.g., attachment in humans is a two-way process – both mother and infant show attachment to each other • Therefore, there are issues with extrapolating Lorenz’s findings of his research to humans

Answer 9

• Researcher bias • Recorded his own observations • May have chosen to only include findings that support his theory of imprinting • Therefore, lowering internal validity of his research • As it may not be measuring the effects of imprinting on attachment

Answer 10

:) Practical Applications :( Animal bias :( Ethical issues

Answer 11

• Practical applications • Emphasises importance of comfort in formation of attachments • Finding can be used by social workers and clinical psychologists • In understanding that lack of bonding experience may be a risk factor in child development • Allowing them to intervene to prevent poor outcomes • Important part of applied psychology when explaining formations of attachment

Answer 12

• Animal bias • Used animals – baby rhesus monkeys – to investigate attachment • Potential problem as human attachment behaviour may be more complex than animal attachment behaviour • Human emotions are more complicated towards their offspring than animals’ • Therefore, there are issues with extrapolating Harlow’s findings of his research to humans CA Could be argued that monkeys are humans closest primate, so findings could be generalised to human population

Answer 13

• Study raises ethical issues due to harm inflicted on monkeys • Monkeys suffered greatly due to Harlow’s procedures • Frightened with loud noise • Had emotional/social issues later in life • Sometimes died • Limiting Harlow’s research into attachments in animals • Due to breaking ethical guidelines CA • Harlow argued importance of findings outweighed distress caused to monkeys • At the time of Harlow’s research there was a dominant belief that attachment was due to physical (food) care rather than emotional care • Harlow’s research into attachment has gone on to create important practical applications

Answer 14

Learning Theory Bowlby's monotropic theory

Answer 15

• Emphasises the importance of food in the formation of attachment • Known as ‘cupboard love’ theory • As it suggests infants learn to attach to whoever feeds them • Milk provided is an unconditioned stimulus • Which provides an unconditioned response of pleasure • Response is automatic and does not need to be learnt • Feeder is neutral stimulus • Repetition of feeding • Infant learns to associate feeder with food and pleasure • Feeder becomes conditioned stimulus • Sight of feeder indicates to child that they will get fed • Produces conditioned response of pleasure • Operant conditioning is learning behaviour through rewards, reinforcements, and punishments • Operant conditioning can be used to explain why babies cry for comfort • Infant is hungry and cries • Leading to response from caregiver – e.g., feeding • Positive reinforcement for infant • Infant receives reward of food • Crying behaviour is reinforced • When caregiver feeds infant, crying stops • This is negative reinforcement for caregiver • Negative stimulus of crying has been removed • Feeding behaviour is reinforced • This mutual reinforcement strengthens an attachment

Answer 16

:( Environmental Reductionism :( RTC by Harlow :( RTC by Schaffer and Emerson

Answer 17

• Environmental reductionism • Reduces complex human behaviour of attachment to simple basic units of learning to attach • Through stimulus, response and association between feeder and food • Neglects holistic approach • Considers how a person’s culture and social context would influence and explain their attachment • E.g., in collectivist cultures, families often work together to look after children • Children may form multiple attachments to begin with and not just with feeder • Lacks validity as it does not allow us to understand behaviour in context

Answer 18

• RTC conducted by Harlow • Studied attachment behaviour in monkeys • Found that monkey’s spent more time with surrogate mother who provided them with comfort rather than surrogate mother who provided them with food • Could be suggested that the same must be for humans • Contradicting learning theory’s assumption that we learn to attach to our feeder • Via associations • Thus, limiting learning theory CA - Harlow’s research conducted on animals • Harlow’s research conducted on animals • May not be appropriate to generalise findings to attachments in humans • Limiting extent to which Harlow’s research can be used to criticise learning theory

Answer 19

• RTC by Schaffer and Emerson • Found that babies tended to form attachments to their mother regardless of whether she was the one who usually fed them • Attachment more due to responding to babies signals and interacting with them • Also, Research by Field into role of the father • Shows that best quality attachments are with caregivers that are sensitive and responsive to the infants’ needs • Thus, evidencing that feeding the infant does not appear to be the most important factor in forming an attachment • Which is what learning theory suggests

Answer 20

Adaptive • Attachment is an innate system • Inherited in order to improve survival • Therefore, it is adaptive Social Releasers • States that infants are born with social releasers • Smiling, crying, and looking ‘cute’ • Triggers a response in a caregiver • Ensures interaction takes place to form an attachment Critical Period • Critical period for attachment in an infant to take place • Biological period • If attachment does not take place within first 2.5 years of life – it may not take place at all Monotropy • ‘Monotropic’ – Bowlby placed great emphasis on attachment to only one caregiver • He believed this is the most important attachment in the child’s development • Bowlby called this person the mother, but it doesn’t need to be the biological mother Internal Working Model • ‘Mental Representation’ that child forms of their relationship with primary caregiver • Serves as a model/template for what relationships are like • Child uses their attachment relationship with caregiver to build expectations of what future relationships are like • Future relationships mirror childhood attachments • Bowlby believes IWMs are passed on from one generation to the next • People base their parenting on their own experiences of being parented

Answer 21

:) RTS by Lorenz CA – Animal bias :) RTS by Hazan and Shaver CA – Social Desirability Bias :( RTC by Schaffer and Emerson CA – Specific Attachment before Multiple Attachment :( Alternative explanation – Learning Theory

Answer 22

• RTS by Lorenz • Studied imprinting on goslings • Found critical period of 12-17 hours in which imprinting had to take place or it would not at all • Supports Bowlby’s concept of critical period – that infants must attach within first 2.5 yrs of life or it would not at all • Strengthening Bowlby’s theory CA – Animal Bias • Can argue that research is limited • Animal bias • Conducted on geese • Humans are emotionally more complex • So findings may not represent attachment behaviour in humans

Answer 23

• RTS by Hazen and Shaver • Created ‘love quiz’ questionnaire • Found securely attached children had happy and long-lasting relationships in later life • Insecurely attached children found it hard to form relationships and many were divorced • Supports IWM as a feature of Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory as first relationships acted as template for future relationships CA – Social Desirability Bias • Can argue that research is limited • Prone to social desirability bias • Used questionnaire • Ppts may lie about their relationships to present themselves in best possible light • Reduces internal validity of RTS

Answer 24

• RTC by Schaffer and Emerson • Found evidence to support view that children have multiple attachments • Found these multiple attachments may help children develop socially, emotionally, and cognitively • Contradicts the monotropy feature proposed by Bowlby, and the idea that infants have one attachment • Limiting Bowlby’s theory of attachment CA • Schaffer and Emerson found that before making multiple attachments, children will form a specific attachment • In 65% of cases this was the mother • Could somewhat supports Bowlby’s idea of monotropy • And one attachment with the mother

Answer 25

• Alternate explanation is learning theory • Proposes that we learn to attach to feeder • Via stimulus, response, and associations of pleasure • Rather than attachment being innate • As it gives survival advantage due to triggering a caring instinct in adults. • Suggests Bowlby’s theory is not the only explanation of how and why infants attach

Answer 26

• 1970 – Ainsworth conducted a controlled observation • Of children’s attachment behaviour • Using the ‘strange situation classification’ Sample • 100 middle-class American infants and their mothers Procedure • Ainsworth judged the child’s reaction to four variables: o Willingness to explore environment o Separation anxiety o Stranger Anxiety o Reunion Behaviour • Via a two-way mirror o Parent enters room with child, child explores for 3 mins  Willingness to explore o Stranger enters and joins parent and infant, tries to interact with child  Stranger anxiety o Parent leaves infant with stranger  Separation anxiety  Stranger anxiety o Parent returns and stranger leaves. Parent settles infant  Reunion behaviour o Parent leaves child alone  Separation anxiety o Stranger returns  Stranger anxiety o Parent returns and stranger leaves  Reunion behaviour Findings • Ainsworth found three types of attachment: • Secure = 70% o Associated with responsive primary caregiver • Insecure-avoidant = 20% o Associated with unresponsive primary caregiver • Insecure-resistant = 10% o Associated with inconsistent primary caregiver

Answer 27

• Willing to explore • Uses mother as secure base • Upset • Avoid stranger • Friendly when mother present • Happy

Answer 28

• Willing to explore • Unconcerned/ indifferent • Unconcerned • Avoid stranger AND mother • Unresponsive when mother returns

Answer 29

• Low willingness to explore • Intensely distressed • Extreme fear of stranger • Clinginess mixed with rejection

Answer 30

:( Ecological Validity :) High in Reliability :) RTS by Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg :( Imposed Etic :( Only Mothers Observed :( Kagan – Temperament

Answer 31

• Lacks ecological validity • Controlled environment, using two-way mirror • Not appropriate to generalise findings to real life attachment types • Infants may behave differently in natural environment • May explore room less than usual or be more scared of stranger due to feeling uncomfortable in unfamiliar environment • Lowering external validity

Answer 32

• High in reliability • Conducted in controlled setting – room with two-way mirror • Using standardised procedure – e.g., each variable assessed for 3 min intervals • Observation can be repeated again in same conditions to check for consistent results • Has been carried out successfully in many different cultures

Answer 33

• RTS by Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg • Replicated ‘strange situation’ in USA • Found consistent results to Ainsworth’s • 65% infants – securely attached • 21% - insecure-avoidant • 14% - insecure-resistant • Provides support of strange situation as a way of assessing attachment types

Answer 34

• Strange situation tool used criticised for imposed etic • Based on American child-rearing practices and ignores practices in other cultures • E.g., Germany – common practice for independence to be encouraged in infants • Infants may show an insecure-avoidant attachment type • But that would be desirable in this culture • ‘Strange situation’ may not be appropriate to measure attachment types in other cultures

Answer 35

• Criticism – only mothers observed with their infants • Neglects to consider attachment types to other caregivers • E.g., Field found fathers can also be primary caregiver • So if mother not primary caregiver, infant might show different attachment type • Lowering internal validity of findings

Answer 36

• Kagan contests assumption made by Ainsworth – that anxiety produced by infants in strange situation is caused by type of attachment with mother • Kagan suggests that temperament – genetically influenced personality of child – has more influence on infants behaviour in strange situation • E.g., child showing severe distress during separation • Wrongly labelled as insecure-avoidant • Could just have natural anxious personality which caused that reaction • Suggesting temperament is confounding variable of research

Answer 37

Van Ijzendoorn

Answer 38

Aim • To investigate cross cultural variations in attachment Sample • 32 studies of the strange situation from 8 countries using around 2000 children Procedure/method • Meta-analysis of the strange situation • Controlled observation Findings • Most common attachment type in all 8 countries – secure o China – lowest % of secure o Britain – Highest % of secure • Considerable differences in insecure types o Insecure-avoidant – Western Cultures o Insecure-resistant – Non-Western Cultures • 1.5 times greater variation of attachment styles WITHIN cultures than BETWEEN cultures o One study in USA – 46% securely attached o Another study in USA – 90% securely attached Conclusion • Results show cultural variations in attachment as insecure types were different • Although, there must be similarities due to secure being the most common in all cultures

Answer 39

:) High Population Validity :( Culture Bias :( Imposed Etic :( Lacks Ecological Validity

Answer 40

• High Population Validity • Meta-analysis of 32 strange situation studies, using large sample of 2000 infants • Easier to generalise findings to rest of the target population • Increasing external validity

Answer 41

• Criticised for culture bias • Over half – 18/32 – studies carried out in US • Only 5 studies carried out in collectivist cultures • Difficult to generalise findings across all cultures • Lowers external validity

Answer 42

• Criticised for imposed etic • Based on American child-rearing practices and ignores practices in other cultures • E.g., lack of separation anxiety indicates insecure-avoidant • In Germany, this may be seen in positive light as independence rather than avoidance/insecurity • Strange situation may not be appropriate to measure attachment types across all cultures

Answer 43

• Lacks ecological validity • Controlled environment, using two-way mirror • Not appropriate to generalise findings to real life attachment types • Infants may behave differently in natural environment • May explore room less than usual or be more scared of stranger due to feeling uncomfortable in unfamiliar environment • Lowering external validity

Answer 44

Define the term maternal deprivation (2 marks) • Emotional and intellectual consequences of extended separation between a child and their mother or mother substitute, • Where a child loses an aspect of care, within the critical period Theory • Continued nurture from a mother or mother substitute • within the first 2.5 years if life (critical period) • important for healthy psychological development • If child has extended periods of separation from the mother • within the critical period, • where an element of care is lost, • Psychological damage is inevitable and irreversible Bowlby proposed to kinds of psychological damage – intellectual damage and emotional damage Intellectual damage • Includes cognitive impairment • Such as intellectual delay • Shown by abnormally low IQ • Goldfarb found lower IQ in children who had remained in institutions • Compared to those who had been fostered Emotional damage • Includes affectionless psychopathy • Inability to experience guilt or strong emotion for others • Prevents person from developing normal relationships • Associated with criminality • Also lack remorse

Answer 45

:) RTS by Bowlby :( Bowlby’s study based on retrospective data :( RTC from Lewis :) Practical Applications :( ‘deprivation’ vs ‘privation’

Answer 46

• RTS by Bowlby – 44 juvenile thieves study • Interviewed opportunity sample of 44 juvenile thieves • To see if they had signs of affectionless psychopathy • Interviewed their parents to see if there were any long periods of separation • within critical period • Found that those with affectionless psychopathy were more likely to have experienced long separations • Supports Bowlby’s theory • Shows prolonged separation in early childhood can lead to negative consequences

Answer 47

• Criticism – findings from Bowlby’s juvenile thieves study based on retrospective data • Relies on memory of the juvenile’s parents • To recall periods of separations in childhood • Could have lied about this information or forgotten it • Reduces internal validity of study • Weakens the support the research provides for Bowlby’s theory

Answer 48

• RTC from Lewis (1954) • Partially replicated 44 thieves study on a larger scale • Looking at 500 young people • History of early prolonged separation from mother did not predict criminality or difficulty forming close relationships • Contradicts Bowlby’s theory • Bowlby used opportunity sample within his research • Conducted interviews with families and juvenile thieves • Research could be open to bias • Could explain differing findings between Bowlby’s and Lewis’ research

Answer 49

• Strength – theory has practical applications • Principle of the theory • That there are potential negative consequences of separation • From a caregiver in early life • Lead to changes in society • Such as hospitals changing visiting hours and letting parents stay overnight with their infants • In order to reduce intellectual and emotional issues such as affectionless psychopathy • Important part of applied psychology • Perhaps appropriate to suggest that this would lead to economic implications • Such as less criminal activity • Which consequently saves taxpayers money

Answer 50

• Bowlby criticised for not distinguishing between ‘deprivation’ and ‘privation’ • Rutter (1976) claimed that the severe long term damage Bowlby associated with deprivation • More likely to be the result of privation (failing to form attachment in first place) • Rather than deprivation (loss of a primary attachment after it is formed) • Bowlby’s theory may be too simplistic or unclear

Answer 51

• Children spending long periods of time • living outside of the family home • within an institution, • for example, an orphanage • Can result in loss of personal identity • Child adopting rules and norms of the institution • That can impair cognitive functioning

Answer 52

Reactive attachment disorder Disinhibited attachment Cognitive impairment

Answer 53

• Extreme lack of sensitive responsiveness from parent in early life • Can lead to child growing up unable to trust or love others • Become isolated and very selfish • Unable to understand needs of others • Can become sociopathic without a conscience • Lack of remorse

Answer 54

• Children select attachment figures indiscriminately • Behave in overly familiar fashion • With complete strangers • E.g., friendly and affectionate • This is unusual behaviour – usually children would show signs of stranger anxiety • Caused by long periods of institutional care in early life • Children may adapt to having multiple caregivers • During sensitive period for attachment formation • Often have other behavioural disorders such as attention seeking (Zeenah et al)

Answer 55

• Delay in intellectual development • Have low IQ and problems with concentration • Difficulty in learning new concepts and behaviours

Answer 56

Rutter et al

Answer 57

Aim: • To investigate whether loving and nurturing care could overturn the effects of institutionalisation the children has suffered in Romanian Orphanages Sample: • 111 Romanian Orphans who were adopted into British families Procedure: • Longitudinal study which began in 1998 • Physical, emotional, and cognitive development assessed • At ages 4, 6, 11 and 15 • Rutter studied three groups o Adopted before age of 6 months o Adopted between 6 months and 2 years o Adopted after age of two (late adoptees) • Romanian orphans were compared to a control group of 52 British adopted children Findings: • Initial assessment o 50% children showed signs of cognitive impairment o Severely undernourished • By age of 4 years o Children making good recoveries o Adopted later – much higher level of disinhibited attachment. o Adopted before 6 months – were doing as well as British adopted families (control group) • By age of 11 o Mean IQ for those adopted later lower than those adopted earlier, o Showing cognitive impairment. o Adopted before 6 months old – normal ‘IQ’ levels Conclusion: • Some negative effects of institutionalisation can be overcome by sensitive, nurturing care • More so if adoption takes place earlier

Answer 58

:) RTS by Zeanah et al :) Practical applications :) High control over extraneous variables :( Different confounding variables :( Confounding variable – naturally occurring adoption

Answer 59

• RTS by Zeanah et al • Compared 95 Romanian orphans • aged between 12-31 months • On average spent 90% of their lives in an institution • To a control group of Romanian children who had never been in an institution • Assessed attachment type using strange situation • 44% of institutionalised children showed signs of ‘disinhibited attachment’ • compared to less than 20% of control group • Being in an institution can have negative effects on psychological development

Answer 60

• Research has practical applications • Studying orphans led to improvements in conditions experienced by children growing up outside their family home • E.g., children’s homes now avoid having large numbers of caregivers for each child • Now, children tend to have one or two ‘key workers’ • Who play a central role in child’s emotional care • Institutional care seen as undesirable option • Considerable effort made to accommodate children with foster carers or adoptive parents • Helps reduce negative effects that can stem from institutionalisation • Such as disinhibited attachment • Children are more likely to form a bond with a carer if they are spending more time with that person • Research is an important part of applied psychology • Improved psychologists’ understanding of the effect of early institutional care • and how to prevent the worst of these effects

Answer 61

• Rutter’s research has higher control over extraneous variables • Previous orphan studies – children often experienced trauma, neglect, abuse or bereavement before being institutionalised • Difficult to tell if any long-term effects were due to neglect and abuse or institutional care • Rutter’s research – majority of orphans handed over by loving parents who could not afford to keep them • So possible to study effects without these confounding variables • Increasing internal validity

Answer 62

• Studying children from Romanian orphanages might have introduced different confounding variables • Quality of care in institutions were extremely poor • Children receiving very little intellectual stimulation or comfort • Harmful effects seen in studies of Romanian orphans may be due to effects of poor institutional care • Rather than institutional care on its own • Limiting research

Answer 63

• Naturally occurring study • Children not randomly assigned to conditions (adopted before 6 months, b/w 6 months and 2 years, adopted after 2 years) • Would have been unethical to do so • Children adopted earlier may have been more sociable ones • Which could explain why they were chosen by adoptee parents • And consequently, has less development issues • This would be a confounding variable • Lowering internal validity of Rutter’s research

Answer 64

• Bowlby argues child forms ‘mental representation’ (schema) of their early attachment relationship with their primary caregiver • Acts as a model for what relationships are like • Future relationships will mirror them • Child raised by loving primary caregiver who responds to their needs: • More likely to have secure attachment • View relationships as positive • (positive internal working model) • Have more successful later relationships • Child raised by unresponsive primary caregiver: • More likely to have insecure attachment • More problems in forming relationships • (negative internal working model) • May not behave appropriately in future relationships (argue more/ more controlling) • This mental representation of early attachment influences the nature of later childhood relationships, adult relationships and relationship with their own children