Paper 1 - Attachment

Question 1

What is an attachment? (2 marks)

Answer 1

• Emotional link between infant and caregiver
• Each seek closeness and feel more secure when in the presence of the attachment figure

• Interactions between caregiver and infant is where an attachment starts
• It is the responsiveness of the caregiver to the infant’s signals that has a deep effect on the child

Question 2

How do we recognise an infant has an attachment?

Answer 2

• Proximity:
• People try to stay physically close to those they are attached to

• Separation distress:
• People are distressed when an attachment figure leaves their presence

• Secure base behaviour:
• We always ‘touch base’ with our attachment figure. Infants regularly return to their attachment figure while playing

Question 3

Outline features of caregiver-infant interactions (6 marks)

Answer 3

Interactional Synchrony (mirroring actions)

• Caregiver and infant respond in time to keep communication going

• E.g., infant smiles, caregiver smiles back at the same time

• Type of communication ensures infant and caregiver’s emotions and actions mirror each other’s

• Meltzoff and Moore conduced a controlled observation of forty 2-week-old babies
• To measure caregiver-infant interactions
• Adult displayed one of three facial expressions/ distinctive gestures
• E.g., Mouth opening or tongue protrusion
• Child’s response was filmed and identified by an independent observer
• Link was found between adult’s facial expressions/gestures and baby’s response

Reciprocity

• Two-way, mutual process
• Infant and caregiver take turns to respond to each other’s behaviours/signals
• To sustain interaction

• Behaviour of each party elicits response from the other
• E.g., child puts arms out to be held – caregiver picks up

• Babies have ‘alert phases’
• Signal when they are ready for interaction
• Mothers pick up and act on these signals 2/3rd of the time

Question 4

Outline research into care-giver infant interactions (3 marks)

Answer 4

• Meltzoff and Moore conduced a controlled observation of forty 2-week-old babies
• To measure caregiver-infant interactions
• Adult displayed one of three facial expressions/ distinctive gestures
• E.g., Mouth opening or tongue protrusion
• Child’s response was filmed and identified by an independent observer
• Link was found between adult’s facial expressions/gestures and baby’s response

Question 5

Features of caregiver-infant interactions - AO3 points

Answer 5

:( Lacks ecological validity
:( Prone to bias
:) High control over extraneous variables
:) Practical applications

Question 6

Features of caregiver-infant interactions - Lacks ecological validity - PEELD

Answer 6

• Much research lacks ecological validity
• Takes place in controlled environments
• Such as controlled observation with caregiver and infant being filmed
• Difficult to generalise findings to real life cases of caregiver-infant interactions
• Infant may not behave how they usually would in the real world
• E.g., May interact with parent more as they are the only familiar person in the room, or may interact less as they feel uncomfortable/ shy in an unfamiliar environment
• Lowers external validity of research

Discussion – However some would argue that because the baby is young, they may not notice the change in the environment, and this would not affect the validity

Question 7

Features of caregiver-infant interactions - Prone to bias - PEELD

Answer 7

• Research can be prone to bias
• Babies cannot speak, so inferences must be drawn about their behaviour
• Psychologist may interpret information in a way that it fits their hypothesis
• E.G., baby might smile due to something happening in the environment around them, but the psychologist may infer that the baby’s smile is a response to the caregiver’s smile
• Reducing internal validity

In order to minimise this, there should be two observers present to agree on the findings

Question 8

Features of caregiver-infant interactions - High control over extraneous variables - PEEL

Answer 8

• Research has high control over extraneous variables
• Takes place in controlled environments
• Example of potential extraneous variable that can be controlled – not having other adults in the room during observations of caregiver-infant interactions
• This may distract the baby
• Cause and effect can be established in interactions between caregivers and infants
• Increasing internal validity of research

Question 9

Features of caregiver-infant interactions - Practical applications - PEEL

Answer 9

• Research has practical applications
• Demonstrated how caregivers and infants interact and the importance of these early interactions on later development
• Psychologists can use this information to encourage responsive caregivers and minimise any later issues that the child may have
• Therefore, research is an important part of applied psychology

Question 10

Outline research into stages of attachment

Answer 10

Conducted by:
• Schaffer and Emerson

Aim:
• To investigate the formation of early attachments, the age at which they develop and who they are directed to

Procedure:
• Longitudinal study
• 60 working class new-born babies and their mothers from Glasgow
• Babies and mothers were visited at their own homes every month for the first year of the baby’s life and again at 18 months
• Observations and interviews with mothers were used
Attachment was measured in two ways:
• Separation anxiety – assessed by infant being left alone in a room, or the researcher asking the mother how the infant reacts in this instance
• Stranger anxiety – assessed by researcher starting each home visit by approaching the infant to see if this distressed the child
• Researchers asked the mothers questions such as who infants smiled at, whom they responded to, etc.

Findings:
Schaffer and Emerson found there were 4 stages to attachment:

1. Asocial
   • First few weeks
   • Babies behaviour to adults and inanimate objects was similar
2. Indiscriminate
   • 2-7 months
   • Babies show a preference to people over inanimate objects
   • Do not show stranger or separation anxiety
3. Specific
   • From around 7 months
   • Babies start to form attachments and show separation and stranger anxiety when separated
   • In 65% cases, this was the mother
4. Multiple
   • Within 1 month of forming a specific attachment, 29% of children formed multiple attachments
   • By 1 year, most infants had multiple attachments
   • 18 months, 75% of children had an attachment with their father

Question 11

Outline the first stage of attachment

Answer 11

• Asocial phase
• First few weeks
• The baby’s behaviour towards non-human objects and humans is similar
• However, Babies are happier when in the presence of other humans

Question 12

Outline the second stage of attachment

Answer 12

• Indiscriminate attachment phase
• 2-7 months
• Babies start to display more observable social behaviour
• Show a preference for people over inanimate objects
• Recognise familiar adults
• Accept cuddles and comfort from any adult
• Do not show separation or stranger anxiety

Question 13

Outline the third stage of attachment

Answer 13

• Specific attachment phase
• From around 7 months
• Majority of babies start to display stranger and separation anxiety when separated from one particular adult
• (Biological mother – 65% cases)
• This person is not necessarily the person the child spends most time with, but the one who offers the most interaction and responds to the babies ‘signals’ the most

Question 14

Outline the fourth stage of attachment

Answer 14

• Multiple attachments stage
• Shortly after specific attachment formed
• Infants extend this attachment behaviour to other adults whom they regularly spend time with
• Schaffer and Emerson’s study, 29% had multiple attachments within a month of forming a specific attachment
• By age of one year – majority infants have developed multiple attachments
• 18 months – 75% infants had attachment with their father

Question 15

Research into stages of attachment - AO3 points

Answer 15

:) High ecological validity
:) Longitudinal study
:( Social desirability bias
:( Culture bias

Question 16

Research into stages of attachment - High ecological validity - PEEL

Answer 16

• Schaffer and Emerson’s study has high ecological validity
• Observations carried out in families’ own homes during ordinary activities by the parent
• Such as leaving the room
• Easier to generalise findings to real life examples of attachments
• Children’s’ behaviour is likely to be representative of everyday interactions
• Increasing external validity

Question 17

Research into stages of attachment - Longitudinal study - PEEL

Answer 17

• Study carried out longitudinally
• Same children followed-up and observed regularly
• Research does not have confounding variable of individual differences between the children
• E.g., how natural temperament of the child may affect the perception of their attachment stage
• Increasing internal validity

Question 18

Research into stages of attachment - Social desirability bias - PEEL

Answer 18

• Research can be prone to social desirability bias
• Interviews were used to gather information
• Mothers could have lied about their child’s behaviour to present their parenting in the best possible light
• E.g., they may say that the child is distressed when they leave the room even if they are not
• Results may lack internal validity and not measure the true stages of attachment

Question 19

Research into stages of attachment - Culture bias - PEEL

Answer 19

• Schaffer’s research criticised for culture bias
• Sample used was all from same city - Glasgow
• Difficult to generalise the findings of stages of attachment to other cultures
• E.g., psychologists studying non-western/collectivist cultures, where families often work together to look after a child, have found that infants can form multiple attachments before forming a specific attachment
• Limiting external validity

Question 20

Which two researchers studied the role of the father?

Answer 20

Grossman (good times)
Field (father = primary caregiver)

Question 21

Outline Grossman’s research into the role of the father

Answer 21

Aim:
• To look at both parents’ behaviour and its relationship to the quality of children’s attachment into their teens

Method:
• Longitudinal study

Findings:
• The quality of infants’ attachment with their mothers, but not their fathers, was related to the children’s’ attachments in adolescence
• However, the quality of father’s play with infants was related to the quality the children’ adolescent attachments

Conclusion:
• Suggests that the fathers’ attachment is less important than the mothers
• Suggests that fathers have a different role in attachment
o One that is more to do with play and stimulation, and less to do with nurturing.
o But is still important for the child’s wellbeing

Question 22

Outline Field’s research into the role of the father

Answer 22

Aim:
• To investigate the role of the father

Method:
• Controlled Observation

Procedure:
• Filmed 4-month-old babies in face-to-face interactions with primary caregiver mothers, primary caregiver fathers, and secondary caregiver fathers

Findings:
• Primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating, and holding infants than the secondary caregiver fathers.
• This behaviour seems to be more important in building an attachment to an infant.

Conclusion:
• Fathers can be the more nurturing attachment figure and take on a traditionally maternal role
• Key to the attachment relationship is the level of responsiveness, not the gender of the parent

Question 23

Role of the father - AO3 points

Answer 23

:) Practical Applications
:( RTC – Macallum and Golombok
:( Traditional Gender Roles & Biological Predisposition

Question 24

Role of the father - Practical Applications - PEEL

Answer 24

• Field’s research has practical applications
• Principles of the research, that responsiveness to the child’s needs is the most important when forming attachments – rather than gender – can be used to advise parents
• When returning to work, mothers may feel pressured to stay at home due to stereotypical views of mothers’ and fathers’ roles
• Equally, fathers may feel pressure to go back to work rather than focus on parenting
• Therefore, research is an important part of applied psychology

Question 25

Role of the father - RTC by Macallum and Golombok - PEEL

Answer 25

• RTC Grossman’s research conducted by Macallum and Golombok
• Grossman found that fathers, as secondary attachment figures, had an important and distinct role in their child’s development of play and stimulation
• However, Macallum and Golombok have shown that children growing up in single-mother or lesbian-parent families do not develop any differently from those in two parent heterosexual families
• Therefore, this suggests the father’s role may not be distinct
• Limiting Grossman’s research

Question 26

Role of the father - Traditional Gender roles and biological predisposition - PEEL

Answer 26

• Traditional gender roles could be the reason why fathers tend not to become the primary attachment figure
• Or it could be that female hormones (oestrogen) create higher levels of nurturing
• So, women are more biologically predisposed to be the primary attachment figure
• Several explanations to consider when investigating role of the father

Question 27

Which researchers conducted animal studies of attachment?

Answer 27

Lorenz - goslings
Harlow - Baby rhesus monkeys

Question 28

Outline Lorenz’ animal study into attachment

Answer 28

Aim:
• To investigate the effects of ‘imprinting’ on Goslings

Method:
• Field Experiment

Procedure:
• Lorenz randomly divided the goose eggs
• Half of the eggs were hatched with the mother goose in their natural environment
• The other half were hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they saw was Lorenz
• Lorenz recorded the behaviour of the Goslings – who they imprinted on

Findings:
• Group who saw Lorenz first – imprinted upon and followed him
• Group who saw the mother goose first – imprinted upon and followed her
• Lorenz identified a critical period – 12-17 hours after hatching – in which imprinting needed to take place
• If imprinting did not occur within this period, Lorenz suggests that chicks will not attach themselves to a mother figure
• Goslings who imprinted on humans would attempt to mate with humans when they’re older

Conclusion:
• Goslings imprint on the first moving object they see
• There is a specific period in which this needs to take place
• Otherwise, they will not attach/imprint

Question 29

Outline Harlow’s animal study into attachment

Answer 29

Aim:
• To investigate whether food or comfort is more important in the formation of attachments

Method:
• Lab experiment

Procedure:
• 16 baby rhesus monkeys were separated from their mothers at birth and brought up in cages
• Cages contained surrogate mothers – wire mother with milk and cloth mother with no milk
• Amount of time spent with each mother was recorded
• Monkeys were frightened with a loud noise to test which mother they preferred when stressed
• Long term effects were recorded, such as sociability and relationships to their future offspring

Findings:
• Monkeys spent more time with cloth mother than wire mother
• When frightened, monkeys would go to the cloth mother
• Later in life, monkeys had emotional damage such as
o being more timid
o being easily bullied
o difficulty mating
o females being inadequate mothers when they were older.

Conclusion:
• Contact comfort is the most important factor when forming an attachment

Question 30

Lorenz’ animal study - AO3 points

Answer 30

:) Practical Applications
:( Animal bias
:( Researcher bias

Question 31

Lorenz’ animal study - Practical Applications - PEEL

Answer 31

• Practical applications
• Principles of the research
o that goslings had to imprint within 12-17 hours or would not imprint at all
o that goslings who imprint on humans later show sexual behaviour towards humans when they are adult birds
• shows importance of critical period on future relationships
• Psychologists can use this information to promote importance of early interactions between parents and infants
• and hopefully reduce issues later in life
• Important part of applied psychology

Question 32

Lorenz’ animal study - Animal bias - PEEL

Answer 32

• Animal bias
• Conducted on animals (goslings) to investigate attachment
• Potentially a problem as human attachment behaviour may be more complex than animal attachment behaviour
• Human emotions are more complicated towards their offspring than birds’
• E.g., attachment in humans is a two-way process – both mother and infant show attachment to each other
• Therefore, there are issues with extrapolating Lorenz’s findings of his research to humans

Question 33

Lorenz’ animal study - Researcher bias - PEEL

Answer 33

• Researcher bias
• Recorded his own observations
• May have chosen to only include findings that support his theory of imprinting
• Therefore, lowering internal validity of his research
• As it may not be measuring the effects of imprinting on attachment

Question 34

Harlow’s animal study - AO3 points

Answer 34

:) Practical Applications
:( Animal bias
:( Ethical issues

Question 35

Harlow’s animal study - Practical applications - PEEL

Answer 35

• Practical applications
• Emphasises importance of comfort in formation of attachments
• Finding can be used by social workers and clinical psychologists
• In understanding that lack of bonding experience may be a risk factor in child development
• Allowing them to intervene to prevent poor outcomes
• Important part of applied psychology when explaining formations of attachment

Question 36

Harlow’s animal study - Animal bias - PEELD

Answer 36

• Animal bias
• Used animals – baby rhesus monkeys – to investigate attachment
• Potential problem as human attachment behaviour may be more complex than animal attachment behaviour
• Human emotions are more complicated towards their offspring than animals’
• Therefore, there are issues with extrapolating Harlow’s findings of his research to humans

CA Could be argued that monkeys are humans closest primate, so findings could be generalised to human population

Question 37

Harlow’s animal study - Ethical Issues - PEELD

Answer 37

• Study raises ethical issues due to harm inflicted on monkeys
• Monkeys suffered greatly due to Harlow’s procedures
• Frightened with loud noise
• Had emotional/social issues later in life
• Sometimes died
• Limiting Harlow’s research into attachments in animals
• Due to breaking ethical guidelines

CA
• Harlow argued importance of findings outweighed distress caused to monkeys
• At the time of Harlow’s research there was a dominant belief that attachment was due to physical (food) care rather than emotional care
• Harlow’s research into attachment has gone on to create important practical applications

Question 38

State the two explanations of attachment

Answer 38

Learning Theory
Bowlby’s monotropic theory

Question 39

Outline the Learning theory as an explanation of attachment (6)

Answer 39

• Emphasises the importance of food in the formation of attachment
• Known as ‘cupboard love’ theory
• As it suggests infants learn to attach to whoever feeds them

• Milk provided is an unconditioned stimulus
• Which provides an unconditioned response of pleasure
• Response is automatic and does not need to be learnt
• Feeder is neutral stimulus
• Repetition of feeding
• Infant learns to associate feeder with food and pleasure
• Feeder becomes conditioned stimulus
• Sight of feeder indicates to child that they will get fed
• Produces conditioned response of pleasure

• Operant conditioning is learning behaviour through rewards, reinforcements, and punishments

• Operant conditioning can be used to explain why babies cry for comfort

• Infant is hungry and cries
• Leading to response from caregiver – e.g., feeding
• Positive reinforcement for infant
• Infant receives reward of food
• Crying behaviour is reinforced

• When caregiver feeds infant, crying stops
• This is negative reinforcement for caregiver
• Negative stimulus of crying has been removed
• Feeding behaviour is reinforced
• This mutual reinforcement strengthens an attachment

Question 40

Learning theory of attachment - AO3 points

Answer 40

:( Environmental Reductionism
:( RTC by Harlow
:( RTC by Schaffer and Emerson

Question 41

Learning theory of attachment - Environmental reductionism - PEEL

Answer 41

• Environmental reductionism
• Reduces complex human behaviour of attachment to simple basic units of learning to attach
• Through stimulus, response and association between feeder and food
• Neglects holistic approach
• Considers how a person’s culture and social context would influence and explain their attachment
• E.g., in collectivist cultures, families often work together to look after children
• Children may form multiple attachments to begin with and not just with feeder
• Lacks validity as it does not allow us to understand behaviour in context

Question 42

Learning theory of attachment - RTC by Harlow - PEELD

Answer 42

• RTC conducted by Harlow
• Studied attachment behaviour in monkeys
• Found that monkey’s spent more time with surrogate mother who provided them with comfort rather than surrogate mother who provided them with food
• Could be suggested that the same must be for humans
• Contradicting learning theory’s assumption that we learn to attach to our feeder
• Via associations
• Thus, limiting learning theory

CA - Harlow’s research conducted on animals
• Harlow’s research conducted on animals
• May not be appropriate to generalise findings to attachments in humans
• Limiting extent to which Harlow’s research can be used to criticise learning theory

Question 43

Learning theory of attachment - RTC by Schaffer and Emerson - PEEL

Answer 43

• RTC by Schaffer and Emerson
• Found that babies tended to form attachments to their mother regardless of whether she was the one who usually fed them
• Attachment more due to responding to babies signals and interacting with them
• Also, Research by Field into role of the father
• Shows that best quality attachments are with caregivers that are sensitive and responsive to the infants’ needs
• Thus, evidencing that feeding the infant does not appear to be the most important factor in forming an attachment
• Which is what learning theory suggests

Question 44

Outline Bowlby’s monotropic theory as an explanation of attachment (6)

Answer 44

Adaptive
• Attachment is an innate system
• Inherited in order to improve survival
• Therefore, it is adaptive

Social Releasers
• States that infants are born with social releasers
• Smiling, crying, and looking ‘cute’
• Triggers a response in a caregiver
• Ensures interaction takes place to form an attachment

Critical Period
• Critical period for attachment in an infant to take place
• Biological period
• If attachment does not take place within first 2.5 years of life – it may not take place at all

Monotropy
• ‘Monotropic’ – Bowlby placed great emphasis on attachment to only one caregiver
• He believed this is the most important attachment in the child’s development
• Bowlby called this person the mother, but it doesn’t need to be the biological mother

Internal Working Model
• ‘Mental Representation’ that child forms of their relationship with primary caregiver
• Serves as a model/template for what relationships are like
• Child uses their attachment relationship with caregiver to build expectations of what future relationships are like
• Future relationships mirror childhood attachments
• Bowlby believes IWMs are passed on from one generation to the next
• People base their parenting on their own experiences of being parented

Question 45

Bowlby’s monotropic theory - AO3 points

Answer 45

:) RTS by Lorenz
CA – Animal bias

:) RTS by Hazan and Shaver
CA – Social Desirability Bias

:( RTC by Schaffer and Emerson
CA – Specific Attachment before Multiple Attachment

:( Alternative explanation – Learning Theory

Question 46

Bowlby’s monotropic theory - RTS by Lorenz - PEELD

Answer 46

• RTS by Lorenz
• Studied imprinting on goslings
• Found critical period of 12-17 hours in which imprinting had to take place or it would not at all
• Supports Bowlby’s concept of critical period – that infants must attach within first 2.5 yrs of life or it would not at all
• Strengthening Bowlby’s theory

CA – Animal Bias
• Can argue that research is limited
• Animal bias
• Conducted on geese
• Humans are emotionally more complex
• So findings may not represent attachment behaviour in humans

Question 47

Bowlby’s monotropic theory - RTS by Hazen and Shaver - PEELD

Answer 47

• RTS by Hazen and Shaver
• Created ‘love quiz’ questionnaire
• Found securely attached children had happy and long-lasting relationships in later life
• Insecurely attached children found it hard to form relationships and many were divorced
• Supports IWM as a feature of Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory as first relationships acted as template for future relationships

CA – Social Desirability Bias
• Can argue that research is limited
• Prone to social desirability bias
• Used questionnaire
• Ppts may lie about their relationships to present themselves in best possible light
• Reduces internal validity of RTS

Question 48

Bowlby’s monotropic theory - RTC by Schaffer and Emerson - PEELD

Answer 48

• RTC by Schaffer and Emerson
• Found evidence to support view that children have multiple attachments
• Found these multiple attachments may help children develop socially, emotionally, and cognitively
• Contradicts the monotropy feature proposed by Bowlby, and the idea that infants have one attachment
• Limiting Bowlby’s theory of attachment

CA
• Schaffer and Emerson found that before making multiple attachments, children will form a specific attachment
• In 65% of cases this was the mother
• Could somewhat supports Bowlby’s idea of monotropy
• And one attachment with the mother

Question 49

Bowlby’s monotropic theory - Alternate explanation Learning Theory - PEEL

Answer 49

• Alternate explanation is learning theory
• Proposes that we learn to attach to feeder
• Via stimulus, response, and associations of pleasure
• Rather than attachment being innate
• As it gives survival advantage due to triggering a caring instinct in adults.
• Suggests Bowlby’s theory is not the only explanation of how and why infants attach

Question 50

Outline Ainsworth’s ‘Strange Situation’ (6)

Answer 50

• 1970 – Ainsworth conducted a controlled observation
• Of children’s attachment behaviour
• Using the ‘strange situation classification’

Sample
• 100 middle-class American infants and their mothers

Procedure
• Ainsworth judged the child’s reaction to four variables:
o Willingness to explore environment
o Separation anxiety
o Stranger Anxiety
o Reunion Behaviour
• Via a two-way mirror
o Parent enters room with child, child explores for 3 mins
 Willingness to explore
o Stranger enters and joins parent and infant, tries to interact with child
 Stranger anxiety
o Parent leaves infant with stranger
 Separation anxiety
 Stranger anxiety
o Parent returns and stranger leaves. Parent settles infant
 Reunion behaviour
o Parent leaves child alone
 Separation anxiety
o Stranger returns
 Stranger anxiety
o Parent returns and stranger leaves
 Reunion behaviour

Findings
• Ainsworth found three types of attachment:
• Secure = 70%
o Associated with responsive primary caregiver
• Insecure-avoidant = 20%
o Associated with unresponsive primary caregiver
• Insecure-resistant = 10%
o Associated with inconsistent primary caregiver

Question 51

Who investigated types of attachment?

Answer 51

Ainsworth

Question 52

Secure attachment:
• Willingness to explore environment
• Separation anxiety
• Stranger anxiety
• Reunion behaviour

Answer 52

• Willing to explore
• Uses mother as secure base

• Upset

• Avoid stranger
• Friendly when mother present

• Happy

Question 53

Insecure-avoidant attachment:
• Willingness to explore environment
• Separation anxiety
• Stranger anxiety
• Reunion behaviour

Answer 53

• Willing to explore

• Unconcerned/ indifferent

• Unconcerned
• Avoid stranger AND mother

• Unresponsive when mother returns

Question 54

Insecure-resistant attachment:
• Willingness to explore environment
• Separation anxiety
• Stranger anxiety
• Reunion behaviour

Answer 54

• Low willingness to explore

• Intensely distressed

• Extreme fear of stranger

• Clinginess mixed with rejection

Question 55

Types of attachment (Ainsworth’s Strange situation) - AO3 Points

Answer 55

:( Ecological Validity
:) High in Reliability
:) RTS by Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg
:( Imposed Etic
:( Only Mothers Observed
:( Kagan – Temperament

Question 56

Types of attachment (Ainsworth’s Strange situation) - Ecological validity - PEEL

Answer 56

• Lacks ecological validity
• Controlled environment, using two-way mirror
• Not appropriate to generalise findings to real life attachment types
• Infants may behave differently in natural environment
• May explore room less than usual or be more scared of stranger due to feeling uncomfortable in unfamiliar environment
• Lowering external validity

Question 57

Types of attachment (Ainsworth’s Strange situation) - High in reliability - PEEL

Answer 57

• High in reliability
• Conducted in controlled setting – room with two-way mirror
• Using standardised procedure – e.g., each variable assessed for 3 min intervals
• Observation can be repeated again in same conditions to check for consistent results
• Has been carried out successfully in many different cultures

Question 58

Types of attachment (Ainsworth’s Strange situation) - RTS by Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg - PEEL

Answer 58

• RTS by Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg
• Replicated ‘strange situation’ in USA
• Found consistent results to Ainsworth’s
• 65% infants – securely attached
• 21% - insecure-avoidant
• 14% - insecure-resistant
• Provides support of strange situation as a way of assessing attachment types

Question 59

Types of attachment (Ainsworth’s Strange situation) - Imposed Etic - PEEL

Answer 59

• Strange situation tool used criticised for imposed etic
• Based on American child-rearing practices and ignores practices in other cultures
• E.g., Germany – common practice for independence to be encouraged in infants
• Infants may show an insecure-avoidant attachment type
• But that would be desirable in this culture
• ‘Strange situation’ may not be appropriate to measure attachment types in other cultures

Question 60

Types of attachment (Ainsworth’s Strange situation) - Only Mothers Observed - PEEL

Answer 60

• Criticism – only mothers observed with their infants
• Neglects to consider attachment types to other caregivers
• E.g., Field found fathers can also be primary caregiver
• So if mother not primary caregiver, infant might show different attachment type
• Lowering internal validity of findings

Question 61

Types of attachment (Ainsworth’s Strange situation) - Kagan – Temperament - PEEL

Answer 61

• Kagan contests assumption made by Ainsworth – that anxiety produced by infants in strange situation is caused by type of attachment with mother
• Kagan suggests that temperament – genetically influenced personality of child – has more influence on infants behaviour in strange situation
• E.g., child showing severe distress during separation
• Wrongly labelled as insecure-avoidant
• Could just have natural anxious personality which caused that reaction
• Suggesting temperament is confounding variable of research

Question 62

Who studies cultural variations in attachment?

Answer 62

Van Ijzendoorn

Question 63

Outline the study into cultural variations in attachment (6)

Answer 63

Aim
• To investigate cross cultural variations in attachment

Sample
• 32 studies of the strange situation from 8 countries using around 2000 children

Procedure/method
• Meta-analysis of the strange situation
• Controlled observation

Findings
• Most common attachment type in all 8 countries – secure
o China – lowest % of secure
o Britain – Highest % of secure
• Considerable differences in insecure types
o Insecure-avoidant – Western Cultures
o Insecure-resistant – Non-Western Cultures
• 1.5 times greater variation of attachment styles WITHIN cultures than BETWEEN cultures
o One study in USA – 46% securely attached
o Another study in USA – 90% securely attached

Conclusion
• Results show cultural variations in attachment as insecure types were different
• Although, there must be similarities due to secure being the most common in all cultures

Question 64

Cultural variations in attachment - AO3 Points

Answer 64

:) High Population Validity
:( Culture Bias
:( Imposed Etic
:( Lacks Ecological Validity

Question 65

Cultural variations in attachment - High population validity - PEEL

Answer 65

• High Population Validity
• Meta-analysis of 32 strange situation studies, using large sample of 2000 infants
• Easier to generalise findings to rest of the target population
• Increasing external validity

Question 66

Cultural variations in attachment - Culture bias - PEEL

Answer 66

• Criticised for culture bias
• Over half – 18/32 – studies carried out in US
• Only 5 studies carried out in collectivist cultures
• Difficult to generalise findings across all cultures
• Lowers external validity

Question 67

Cultural variations in attachment - Imposed Etic - PEEL

Answer 67

• Criticised for imposed etic
• Based on American child-rearing practices and ignores practices in other cultures
• E.g., lack of separation anxiety indicates insecure-avoidant
• In Germany, this may be seen in positive light as independence rather than avoidance/insecurity
• Strange situation may not be appropriate to measure attachment types across all cultures

Question 68

Cultural variations in attachment - Lacks ecological validity - PEEL

Answer 68

• Lacks ecological validity
• Controlled environment, using two-way mirror
• Not appropriate to generalise findings to real life attachment types
• Infants may behave differently in natural environment
• May explore room less than usual or be more scared of stranger due to feeling uncomfortable in unfamiliar environment
• Lowering external validity

Question 69

Outline Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation (6)

Answer 69

Define the term maternal deprivation (2 marks)
• Emotional and intellectual consequences of extended separation between a child and their mother or mother substitute,
• Where a child loses an aspect of care, within the critical period

Theory
• Continued nurture from a mother or mother substitute
• within the first 2.5 years if life (critical period)
• important for healthy psychological development
• If child has extended periods of separation from the mother
• within the critical period,
• where an element of care is lost,
• Psychological damage is inevitable and irreversible

Bowlby proposed to kinds of psychological damage – intellectual damage and emotional damage

Intellectual damage
• Includes cognitive impairment
• Such as intellectual delay
• Shown by abnormally low IQ
• Goldfarb found lower IQ in children who had remained in institutions
• Compared to those who had been fostered

Emotional damage
• Includes affectionless psychopathy
• Inability to experience guilt or strong emotion for others
• Prevents person from developing normal relationships
• Associated with criminality
• Also lack remorse

Question 70

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation - AO3 Points

Answer 70

:) RTS by Bowlby
:( Bowlby’s study based on retrospective data
:( RTC from Lewis
:) Practical Applications
:( ‘deprivation’ vs ‘privation’

Question 71

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation - RTS by Bowlby - PEEL

Answer 71

• RTS by Bowlby – 44 juvenile thieves study
• Interviewed opportunity sample of 44 juvenile thieves
• To see if they had signs of affectionless psychopathy
• Interviewed their parents to see if there were any long periods of separation
• within critical period
• Found that those with affectionless psychopathy were more likely to have experienced long separations
• Supports Bowlby’s theory
• Shows prolonged separation in early childhood can lead to negative consequences

Question 72

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation - Bowlby’s study based on retrospective data - PEEL

Answer 72

• Criticism – findings from Bowlby’s juvenile thieves study based on retrospective data
• Relies on memory of the juvenile’s parents
• To recall periods of separations in childhood
• Could have lied about this information or forgotten it
• Reduces internal validity of study
• Weakens the support the research provides for Bowlby’s theory

Question 73

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation - RTC from Lewis - PEELD

Answer 73

• RTC from Lewis (1954)
• Partially replicated 44 thieves study on a larger scale
• Looking at 500 young people
• History of early prolonged separation from mother did not predict criminality or difficulty forming close relationships
• Contradicts Bowlby’s theory

• Bowlby used opportunity sample within his research
• Conducted interviews with families and juvenile thieves
• Research could be open to bias
• Could explain differing findings between Bowlby’s and Lewis’ research

Question 74

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation - Practical applications - PEELD

Answer 74

• Strength – theory has practical applications
• Principle of the theory
• That there are potential negative consequences of separation
• From a caregiver in early life
• Lead to changes in society
• Such as hospitals changing visiting hours and letting parents stay overnight with their infants
• In order to reduce intellectual and emotional issues such as affectionless psychopathy
• Important part of applied psychology

• Perhaps appropriate to suggest that this would lead to economic implications
• Such as less criminal activity
• Which consequently saves taxpayers money

Question 75

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation - ‘deprivation’ vs ‘privation’ - PEEL

Answer 75

• Bowlby criticised for not distinguishing between ‘deprivation’ and ‘privation’
• Rutter (1976) claimed that the severe long term damage Bowlby associated with deprivation
• More likely to be the result of privation (failing to form attachment in first place)
• Rather than deprivation (loss of a primary attachment after it is formed)
• Bowlby’s theory may be too simplistic or unclear

Question 76

What is institutionalisation? (3 marks)

Answer 76

• Children spending long periods of time
• living outside of the family home
• within an institution,
• for example, an orphanage

• Can result in loss of personal identity
• Child adopting rules and norms of the institution

• That can impair cognitive functioning

Question 77

Name the three effects of institutionalisation

Answer 77

Reactive attachment disorder
Disinhibited attachment
Cognitive impairment

Question 78

Outline reactive attachment disorder as an effect of institutionalisation (3)

Answer 78

• Extreme lack of sensitive responsiveness from parent in early life
• Can lead to child growing up unable to trust or love others
• Become isolated and very selfish
• Unable to understand needs of others
• Can become sociopathic without a conscience
• Lack of remorse

Question 79

Outline disinhibited attachment as an effect of institutionalisation (3)

Answer 79

• Children select attachment figures indiscriminately
• Behave in overly familiar fashion
• With complete strangers
• E.g., friendly and affectionate
• This is unusual behaviour – usually children would show signs of stranger anxiety

• Caused by long periods of institutional care in early life
• Children may adapt to having multiple caregivers
• During sensitive period for attachment formation

• Often have other behavioural disorders such as attention seeking (Zeenah et al)

Question 80

Outline cognitive impairment as an effect of institutionalisation (3)

Answer 80

• Delay in intellectual development
• Have low IQ and problems with concentration
• Difficulty in learning new concepts and behaviours

Question 81

Who conducted Romanian orphan studies into effects of institutionalisation?

Answer 81

Rutter et al

Question 82

Outline Rutter et al’s Romanian orphan studies (effects of institutionalisation)

Answer 82

Aim:
• To investigate whether loving and nurturing care could overturn the effects of institutionalisation the children has suffered in Romanian Orphanages

Sample:
• 111 Romanian Orphans who were adopted into British families

Procedure:
• Longitudinal study which began in 1998
• Physical, emotional, and cognitive development assessed
• At ages 4, 6, 11 and 15
• Rutter studied three groups
o Adopted before age of 6 months
o Adopted between 6 months and 2 years
o Adopted after age of two (late adoptees)
• Romanian orphans were compared to a control group of 52 British adopted children

Findings:
• Initial assessment
o 50% children showed signs of cognitive impairment
o Severely undernourished
• By age of 4 years
o Children making good recoveries
o Adopted later – much higher level of disinhibited attachment.
o Adopted before 6 months – were doing as well as British adopted families (control group)
• By age of 11
o Mean IQ for those adopted later lower than those adopted earlier,
o Showing cognitive impairment.
o Adopted before 6 months old – normal ‘IQ’ levels

Conclusion:
• Some negative effects of institutionalisation can be overcome by sensitive, nurturing care
• More so if adoption takes place earlier

Question 83

Romanian orphan studies - AO3 points

Answer 83

:) RTS by Zeanah et al
:) Practical applications
:) High control over extraneous variables
:( Different confounding variables
:( Confounding variable – naturally occurring adoption

Question 84

Romanian orphan studies - RTS by Zeenah et al - PEEL

Answer 84

• RTS by Zeanah et al
• Compared 95 Romanian orphans
• aged between 12-31 months
• On average spent 90% of their lives in an institution
• To a control group of Romanian children who had never been in an institution
• Assessed attachment type using strange situation
• 44% of institutionalised children showed signs of ‘disinhibited attachment’
• compared to less than 20% of control group
• Being in an institution can have negative effects on psychological development

Question 85

Romanian orphan studies - Practical applications - PEEL

Answer 85

• Research has practical applications
• Studying orphans led to improvements in conditions experienced by children growing up outside their family home
• E.g., children’s homes now avoid having large numbers of caregivers for each child
• Now, children tend to have one or two ‘key workers’
• Who play a central role in child’s emotional care

• Institutional care seen as undesirable option
• Considerable effort made to accommodate children with foster carers or adoptive parents
• Helps reduce negative effects that can stem from institutionalisation
• Such as disinhibited attachment
• Children are more likely to form a bond with a carer if they are spending more time with that person

• Research is an important part of applied psychology
• Improved psychologists’ understanding of the effect of early institutional care
• and how to prevent the worst of these effects

Question 86

Romanian orphan studies - High control over extraneous variables - PEEL

Answer 86

• Rutter’s research has higher control over extraneous variables
• Previous orphan studies – children often experienced trauma, neglect, abuse or bereavement before being institutionalised
• Difficult to tell if any long-term effects were due to neglect and abuse or institutional care
• Rutter’s research – majority of orphans handed over by loving parents who could not afford to keep them
• So possible to study effects without these confounding variables
• Increasing internal validity

Question 87

Romanian orphan studies - Different confounding variables - PEEL

Answer 87

• Studying children from Romanian orphanages might have introduced different confounding variables
• Quality of care in institutions were extremely poor
• Children receiving very little intellectual stimulation or comfort
• Harmful effects seen in studies of Romanian orphans may be due to effects of poor institutional care
• Rather than institutional care on its own
• Limiting research

Question 88

Romanian orphan studies - Confounding variable - naturally occurring adoption - PEEL

Answer 88

• Naturally occurring study
• Children not randomly assigned to conditions (adopted before 6 months, b/w 6 months and 2 years, adopted after 2 years)
• Would have been unethical to do so
• Children adopted earlier may have been more sociable ones
• Which could explain why they were chosen by adoptee parents
• And consequently, has less development issues
• This would be a confounding variable
• Lowering internal validity of Rutter’s research

Question 89

Outline Bowlby’s internal working model

Answer 89

• Bowlby argues child forms ‘mental representation’ (schema) of their early attachment relationship with their primary caregiver
• Acts as a model for what relationships are like
• Future relationships will mirror them

• Child raised by loving primary caregiver who responds to their needs:
• More likely to have secure attachment
• View relationships as positive
• (positive internal working model)
• Have more successful later relationships

• Child raised by unresponsive primary caregiver:
• More likely to have insecure attachment
• More problems in forming relationships
• (negative internal working model)
• May not behave appropriately in future relationships (argue more/ more controlling)

• This mental representation of early attachment influences the nature of later childhood relationships, adult relationships and relationship with their own children