Paper 1 Flashcards
Osmosis definition
The diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to low water concentration down a concentration gradient
Describe the cell cycle
Stage 1: Replicate of DNA to form 2 copies of each chromosome. Increase in sub-cellular structures eg mitochondria.
Stage 2: Mitosis (nucleus divides). One set of chromosomes pulled to each end of the cell
Stage 3: Cytoplasm and cell membrane divide to form 2 identical daughter cells
How many pairs of chromosomes are in normal body cells?
23 pairs
Define differentiation
The process in which cells become specialised for specific functions
Differentiation in plant v animal cells
Animals: specialisation happens early in life
Plants: differentiate throughout life. Undifferentiated cells are formed at meristems, where cell elongation takes place.
Plant cells can also become unspecialised and re-differentiate many times.
Food test for starch
Add iodine solution
Colour change from orange to blue black in presence of starch
Food test for sugars
Blue Benedict’s solution turns brick red on heating
Food test for protein
Add Biuret reagent
Colour change blue to purple
Food test for lipids
Add ethanol solution
A white precipitate forms
Metabolism
The sum of all reactions in the cell or body
Arteries carry blood…
…away from the heart
Veins carry blood…
…towards the heart
Adaptations of capillaries
-Thin walls: efficient diffusion of oxygen and glucose into cells, and carbon dioxide out
Walls are 1 cell thick
Biological valves v mechanical valves
M: made from titanium or other polymer
B: from pigs or cattle (sometimes human)
M: can last throughout life
B: need replacement every 12-15 years
M: need to take medicine to prevent blood clotting
B: no medicine required
Inhalation
-Ribs move up and out
-Diaphragm flattens and the volume of the chest increases
-Increased volume means a lower air pressure in the chest
-Atmospherics air pressure is higher than the chest so air is drawn into the lungs
Exhalation
-Ribs move down and in
-Diaphragm contracts and the volume of the chest decreases
-Decreased volume means a higher air pressure in the chest
-Atmospherics air pressure is lower than the chest so air is forced out of the lungs
Function of the pulmonary artery
Takes deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs
Function of the pulmonary vein
Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart
Compare xylem and phloem
Xylem: transports water and mineral salts from the roots up to other parts of the plant. Unidirectional. TRANSPIRATION STREAM. provides water to cells to keep them turgid + for photosynthesis
Phloem: transports sucrose and
amino acids from the leaves and other parts of the plant. Bidirectional. Pores in end walls. TRANSLOCATION. moves dissolved sugars made in photosynthesis to other parts of plant allowing for respiration growth and glucose storage
3 ways that pathogens are spread
Air/droplet infection
Water
Direct contact
4 components of the blood
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets
Plasma
3 adaptations of a RBC
-No nucleus- more area for oxygen transport
-Biconcave shape increases SA:V ratio
-Contains haemoglobin to bind to the oxygen
Substances transported in blood plasma
hormones
urea
proteins
CO2
Waxy cuticle
Makes the leaf waterproof
Upper epidermis
-single layer of cells
-protects against water loss
-transparent to allow light through for photosynthesis
Palisade mesophyll
-tightly packed cells to maximise light absorption
-Abundant chloroplasts to absorb light for photosynthesis
Spongy mesophyll
-loosely organised with lots of air spaces to allow gases to diffuse quickly
-large SA:V ratio to increase the rate of gas exchange
Guard cells
Control the opening and closing of the stomata
How do guard cells open and close?
When the plant has plenty of water the guard cells become turgid so the guard cell swells and opens the stomata
Stomata
Tiny openings on the undersides of leaves (prevents water loss)
Opens to allow gases to diffuse in and out
Describe the characteristics of a prokaryotic cell
- single-celled
- single loop of DNA not enclosed in a nucleus
- Small rings of DNA called plasmids
- smaller than eukaryotic cells
Function of cell membrane
controls the movement of substances in and out of a cell
Function of nucleus
contains DNA
Function of mitochondria
where respiration takes place and energy is released
Function of ribosomes
Where proteinsynthesis occurs
Function of cytoplasm
chemical reactions happen
Contains organelles
Function of permanent vacuole
Filled with cell sap to help keep the cell turgid.
Function of cell wall
Made from cellulose fibres and strengthens the cell and supports the plant.
Function of chloroplast
Organelles that contains the green pigment, chlorophyll, which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis. Contains the enzymes needed for photosynthesis.
Differences between a light microscope and an electron microscope
Light - living samples can be viewed, relatively cheap, low magnification, low resolution, uses light to form images
Electron - samples cannot be living, expensive, high magnification, high resolution, uses a beam of electrons to form images
Define resolution
the ability to distinguish between two separate points
Define magnification
the ability to make small objects seem larger
Adaptations of a sperm cell
- tail to swim to ovum and fertilise it
- lots of mitochondria to release energy from respiration
- acrosome contains enzymes to break through egg cell
Adaptations of a red blood cell
- no nucleus so more room to carry oxygen
- haemoglobin that binds to oxugen molecules
- flat bi-concave disc shape to increase surface area to volume ratio
Adaptations of a muscle cell
- contains protein fibres that contract to make cells shorter
- contains lots of mitochondria to release energy from respirtion allowing muscles to contract
Adaptations of a nerve cell
- branched dendrites to connect with other neurones/effectors
- myelin sheath insulates the axon to increase transmission speed of electrical impulses
Adaptations of a root hair cell
- lots of mitochondria to release energy for active transport of mineral ions from soil
- no chloroplasts as it is underground and photosynthesis cannot take place
-High SA:V ratio for efficient absorption
Adaptations of a palisade cell
- lots of chloroplasts containing chlorophyll to absorb light energy
- narrow so that they can be tightly packed together
Define diffusion
The spreading out of particles resulting in a net movement from an area of higher concentratio to an area of lower concentration
Down a concentration gradient
Define active transport
The net movement of particles from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration using energy
Against a concentration gradient
Where is diffusion used
- Humans - nutrients in small intestine diffuse into capillaries through villi. Oxygen diffuses from air in alveoli to blood in capillaries. Urea from cells into blood for excretion
- Fish - oxygen from water to blood through gills. C02 from blood to water
- Plants - C02 for photosynthesis diffuses through stomata into leaves. Oxygen diffuses out of leaves through stomata
Where is osmosis used
- Plants - water moves by osmosis from a dilute soltion to a concentrated solution in the root hair cell
Where is active transport used
- Humans - sugar molecules can be absorbed from small intestine into blood
- Plants - absorbs mineral ions into root hair cells from dilute concentrations in the soil
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion
- Concentration gradient - The greater the difference in concentration, the quicker the rate of diffusion.
- Temperature - The higher the temperature, the more kinetic energy the particles will have, so they will move and mix more quickly.
- Surface area of membrane - The greater the surface area, the faster the rate of diffusion.
Explain hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic solutions
Hypotonic -concentration of solutes in solution outside cell is lower than internal concentration
Hypertonic - concentration of solutes in solution outside cell is higher than internal concentration
Isotonic - concentration of solutes in solution outside cell is same as internal concentration
How are villi adaptated for exchanging substances
- network of capillaries for access to ions
- large surface rea due to folding and microvilli
- cell wall only one cell thick - reduces the distance that gases need to travel to diffuse, which can lead to faster gas exchange
How are alveoli adapted for exchanging substances
- large surface area
- moist - gases dissolve in the moisture helping them to pass across the gas exchange surface
- one cell thick
- rich blood supply
Advantages and disadvantages of adult stem cells
+ fewer ethical issues- adults can consent
+ donors recover quickly
-could have long wait for donor
-can only differentiate into certain types of specialised cells