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P/S Flashcards

1
Q

Binocular cues

A

Retinal disparity

Convergence ( far away - eyes relaxed; close - eyes contract)

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2
Q

Monocular cues

A 
relative size
relative height
interposition
shading and contour
motion parallax ( far away- slower; close - faster)
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3
Q

Visual Constancy

A

our perception of object doens’t change even if it looks different on retina
size constancy
shape constancy
color constancy

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4
Q

Inner ear muscle adjustment

A

loud noise - contract

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5
Q

Sight Adaptation

A

light adaptation - pupils constrict, rods and cones become desensitize
dark adaptation - pupils dilate, rods and cones start synthesizing light sensitive molecules

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6
Q

Just noticeable difference

A

threshold at which you’re able to notice a change in any sensation ; smallest difference that can be detected 50% of the time

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7
Q

Absolute threshold of sensation

A

the minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

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8
Q

Absolute threshold influncers

A 
Psychological states:
expectations
experience 
motivation 
alterntess
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9
Q

Subliminal stimuli

A

stimuli below the absolute threshold

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10
Q

Semicircular canals- filled with

A

filled with endolymph

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11
Q

Semicircular canals detect

A

Rotational acceleration - what direction our head is moving in and the strength of rotation
-contribute to dizziness and vertigo cause endolymph doesn’t stop spinning when we do

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12
Q

Otolichic organs

A

Utricle and Saccule; Ca2+ crystals attached to hair cells

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13
Q

Otolithic organs detect

A

linear acceleration and head positioning

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14
Q

Signal Detection Theory Purpose

A

looks at how we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty ; “discerning between important stimuli and unimportant “noise”
Origins: sonar

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15
Q

Signal Detection Theory; d’

A

d’ is the strength of a signal

  • hits > misses for strong signal
  • misses > hits for weak signals
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16
Q

Signal Detection Theory; c

A

c is the strategy used

  • 2 strategies: Conservative and Liberal
  • Conservative - always say no unless 100% sure signal’s present - get misses
  • Liberal - always say yes unless 100% sure signal’s absent - get false alarms
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17
Q

Signal Detection Theory; Signal Distribution Graph

A

2 lines are the noise and the signal

-d’ - the difference between the two

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18
Q

Ideal Signal Detection Strategy

A

c = 0

- minimizes misses and false alarms

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19
Q

Conservative signal detection strategy

A

c>1

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20
Q

Liberal signal detection strategy

A

c <1

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21
Q

Bottom up processing

A

stimulus influences our perception; Data driven; start with no preconceived ideas

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22
Q

Top down processing

A

background knowledge influences perception; Theory driven ; perception influenced by our expectation

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23
Q

Gestalt Similarity

A

Items similar to one another are groped together

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24
Q

Gestalt Pragnanz

A

reality is reduced to simplest form possible (olympic rings)

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25
Q

Gestalt Proximity

A

objects that are close together are grouped together ( don’t have to be same shapes)

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26
Q

Gelstalt Continuity

A

lines follow the smoothest path

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27
Q

Gestalt Closure

A

objects grouped together are seen as a whole

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28
Q

Hindsight Bias

A

the inclination, after an even has occurred, to see the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective basis for predicting it

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29
Q

Normalcy Bias

A

underestimate the possibility of a disaster occurring and its possible effects “ can’t happen to me”

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30
Q

Recsontructive Bias

A

memories are not accurate, especially times of high stress

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31
Q

Attrition Bias

A

when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study

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32
Q

Social Desirability Bias

A

how people respond to research questions; answer what they think looks good

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33
Q

Selection Bias/ Sample Bias

A

How people are chosen to participate
bias in which a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others –> creates biased sample, a non-random sample of a population

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34
Q

Implicit Bias

A

the attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual’s understanding, actions, and decisions in an unfavorable manner

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35
Q

Reactivity

A

When participants are being observe, there’s a chance that researcher is influencing what is being observed

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36
Q

Operationalization

A

the process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors

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37
Q

Embedded field study

A

when researchers pose as participants

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38
Q

Split-Half Method

A

-measure extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured
Unidirectional Relationship : cause –> effect
Reciprocal Relationship: cause effect

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39
Q

Reciprocity Social Rule

A

social rule that says we should repay in kind, what another person has provided us– this sense of future obligation associated with reciprocity makes it possible to build continuing relationships and exchanges – importance in maintenance and establishment of social norms; both individuals and society often punish free loaders, even when punishment results in costs to group so people don’t want to be seen as free loaders

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40
Q

Validity

A

whether or not the test measure what it claims to measure; several factors to establish validity:
content validity, concurrent validity, and predictive validity

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41
Q

Reliability

A

consistency, or reproducibility ; ex if administer a test on two occasions, should have similar performance

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42
Q

Orbitofrontal Cortex

A

associated with processing both positive and negative emotions; happy right hemisphere; depressed left hemisphere
**vision, taste, olfaction, and touch are all first integrated in orbitofrontal cortex

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43
Q

Subcallosal cingulate
Insula an basal ganglia
left superior temporal sulcus

A
  • recognition of facial expressions associated with sadness
  • disgust
  • anger
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44
Q

Visual Agnosia

A

inability to recognize an image; disorder of the ventral pathway

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45
Q

Synthetasia

A

neuro phenom where stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in second sensory or cognitive pathway

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46
Q

Antipsychotics Treat

A

psychosis - schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, dementia, anxiety, OCD, an anxiety disorder

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47
Q

Typical Antipsychotics/ Neuroleptics

A

decrease positive symptoms of schizophrenia AND increase negative symptoms ( extrapyramidal motor control disability)

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48
Q

Atypical Antipsychotics/Second Generation Antipsychotics (SAGs)

A

major tranquilizers ; decrease positive symptoms of schizophrenia

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49
Q

Thomas Theorem

A

“If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences) – interpretation of a situation causes the action

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50
Q

Tonotopy/ Tonotopic Map

A

Special mapping of sound frequencies that are processed by the brain

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51
Q

Stroop effect

A

demonstration of interference in the reaction time of a task;

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52
Q

Interference

A

when participant takes longer to read a word that’s emotionally charged than neutral

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53
Q

LSD

A

serotonin neurotransmission

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54
Q

Nicotine

A

CNS stimulant by working as an acetylcholine agonist

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55
Q

Amphetamine

A

Dopamine reuptake blocke

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56
Q

Alcohol

A

CNS depressant

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57
Q

Mesolimbic

A

positive effects of schizophrenia

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58
Q

Mesocortical

A

negative effects of schizophrenia

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59
Q

Nigrostriatal pathway

A

motor planning and purposeful movement

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60
Q

Mesolimbic Pathway

A

associated with reward, motivation, and many of positive symptoms of schizophrenia

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61
Q

Neuropeptide Y

A

inhibits the feeding circuit blocking satiety; involves cholecystokinin(CCK) and distention of duodenum

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62
Q

Proximal Stimulus

A

stimulation that occurs when your sensory receptors are activated; the physical stimulus that can be measured by an observer’s sensory apparatus

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63
Q

Distal Stimulus

A

actual stimulus; objects in the real world that you end up sensing and then perceiving , which creates/results in/provides information to the proximal stimulus

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64
Q

Word Association

A

word game involving exchange of words that are associated together

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65
Q

Psychophysical Testing/psychophysics

A

quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations an perceptions they affect; scientific study between stimuli and sensation; systematically vary properties of stimulus along one or more physical dimensions

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66
Q

Method of Limits

A

Start out stimulus at very low level where can’t be detected and gradually increase until aware; can used ascending or descending

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67
Q

Method of Constant Stimulation

A

better than method of limits cause always presenting so no error of habituation and expectation; can do absolute thresholds where present stimulus randomly or ask difference thresholds (for which there has to be a constant stimulus with each of the varied levels)

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68
Q

Method of Adjustment/Method of average error

A

ask subject to control level of stimulus, instructs them to alter it until it is just barely detectable against the background noise or same level of another stimulus

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69
Q

Practice Effects

A

influences on performance that arise from practicing a task

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70
Q

Order Effect

A

influence on a particular trial that arises from its position in a sequence of trials; carry over effects

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71
Q

Interaural time difference

A

time it takes sound to reach the left vs right ear

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72
Q

interaural level difference

A

difference in sound pressure level between ears; head dampens overall sound to the far ear and reduces intensity of high frequency tones ( big ass head)

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73
Q

Cone of Confusion

A

all the point on the cone of confusion have the same interaural time difference an interaural level difference

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74
Q

GABA

A

primary inhibitor of CNS; principal role in reducing neuronal excitability throughout the NS; decreased in pts with anxiety

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75
Q

Dopamine

A

reward, attention, learning

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76
Q

Serotonin

A

mood, appetite, social behavior, and memory

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77
Q

hypocritin aka orexin

A

CNS, control sleep and arousal

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78
Q

Temporal Monotocity

A

assumes that adding pain at the end of a painful experience will worsen the retrospective evaluation of the experienced pain; adding pleasure at the end will enhance the retrospective evaluation

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79
Q

Posner and Snyder-automatic

A

defined action as automatic if it did not affect other mental activities

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80
Q

Gluatamate

A

associated with increased cortical arousal

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81
Q

Adenosine Monophoshpate

A

cells responsible for arousal are inhibited by adenosine monophosphate (AMP)

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82
Q

phoshpodiesterase

A

decompose cAMP –> AMP
-caffeine inhibits this enzyme - So increase in cAMP increases glutamate production and results in AP that are briefer and released in bursts

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83
Q

cAMP

A

ON/SIGNALING

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84
Q

insula

A

perception of insula ( warm is insulated)

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85
Q

Spreading and STDP

A

Spreading activation finds the shortest circuit and asymmetry occurs because of spike time dependent plasticity; the synapse that fires regularly is strengthened in that direction

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86
Q

fMRI

A

blood flow

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87
Q

McGurk effect

A

categorical change in auditory perception that occurs when auditory stimulus does not match the visual stimulus during speech perception

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88
Q

Global aphasia

A

result of damage to large portion of left hemisphere - unable to produce, understand, and likely can’t read or write

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89
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

fluent/receptive aphasia

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90
Q

Broca’s Area

A

non-fluent/productive aphasia

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91
Q

Mediating Variable

A

specifies a given cause ( OG predictor variable, independent variable) that works indirectly through a more direct cause ( mediator variable) to a final effect ( outcome variable, dependent variable)

  • can explain how IV and DV are related
  • IV accounts for variations in DV
  • IV variations account for variations in mediator
  • mediator variation account for variations in DV
  • **when a mediator is added to the mode, the relationship between IV and DV decreases
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92
Q

Moderating Variable

A

variable that specifies conditions under which a given predictor is related to an outcome; explains “when” a DV an IV are related; influences the strength of a relationship between two other variables

  • changing the strength or direction of the relationship between IV an DV
  • does NOT explain why there’s a relationship between IV an DV
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93
Q

Confounding Variable

A

hypothetical or real third variable that is often not taken into account during analysis and can adversely affect the study

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94
Q

Mood Regulation Monoamines

A

Norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine; hypothalamus uses these as it manages the endocrine system

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95
Q

Amygdala

A

fear, aggression, memory-processing, decision-making, and emotional reactions

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96
Q

Aversive Conditioning

A

behavioral conditioning where noxious stimuli are associated with undesirable or unwanted behavior that is to be modified or abolished

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97
Q

Beck’s Cognitive Therapy (CT)/CBT

A

type of psychotherapy; based on cognitive model which states that thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are all connected and that individuals can move toward overcoming difficulties and meeting their goals by identifying and changing unhelpful or inaccurate thinking, problematic behavior, and distressing emotional resonses

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98
Q

Opponent-Process Theory

A

psychological an neurological model that accounts for a wide range behaviors, including color vision

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99
Q

Diathesis-Stress model

A

psychological theory that attempts to explain behavior as a predispositional vulnerability together with stress from life experiences

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100
Q

Ethical Research

A

requires all participants voluntarily participate in the study and be able to freely withdraw at any pont

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101
Q

Socioeconmic Status (SES)

A

income (or wealth), educational attainment, and/or occupational status

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102
Q

Ethnographic Research

A

involves observing social interactions in real social settings

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103
Q

Ethnography

A

systematic study of people and cultures

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104
Q

Comparative Stuy/Research

A

cooperative research aims to make comparisons across different countries or cultures; BIG PROB- that different countries may define things differently, such as poverty

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105
Q

Flynn effect

A

observation regarding the growth of IQ from one generation to the enxt

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106
Q

Median’s Susceptibility

A

less susceptible to variation when compared to mode

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107
Q

Egoism

A

psychological egoism- motivations and instincts of an individual’s behavior are based on their own self-interest and welfare

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108
Q

Multiple Approach-Avoidance

A

describes the internal mental debate (conflict) that weighs the pros and cons of differing situations that have both goo and bad elements; visualizing yourself approaching and avoiding different aspects of situations at the same time

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109
Q

Approach-Approach conflicts

A

two options are both appealing

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110
Q

Avoidant-avoidant conflicts

A

both options are unappealing

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111
Q

Double Approach-avoidant conflicts

A

two options with both appealing and negative characteristics

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112
Q

Cialidini’s Six Key principles of Influence

A 
Reciprocity
Commitment and Consistency
social proof
authority
liking
scarcity
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113
Q

Spatial Discrimination

A

ability to perceive as separate points of contact the two blunt points of a compass when applied to the skin

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114
Q

Symbolic Interactionism

A

significance we given to objects, events, symbols…we interact with the world and each other to give meaning to things; focus on individual and how they behave; people are created by their society and act based on past experiences and meanings they’ve given things

  • not everyone gives same meaning to same things
  • subjective meaning people believe to be true; meaning is the central aspect of human behavior, we act towards things based on ascribed meaning an use language to generate meaning through interactions
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115
Q

Functionalism

A
  • *all about institutions**Look at stability of a society, society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning
  • society is heading towards equilibrium between institutions and social facts ( how local business must adapt to new ways to cater to customers)
  • -institutions remain constant and only make minor change when stability is lost in order to return to equilibrium
  • social culture that shapes society as a whole
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116
Q

Macrosociology

A

large scale perspective, big phenomena, social structures, institutions, whole civilizations/populations

  • look for patterns and effects on big picture
  • Functionalism
  • Conflict Theory
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117
Q

Conflict Theory

A

society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities; large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved and new social order is created

  • focus on different groups in society, based on ideas of Karl Marx that believed society evolve through several stages ( feudalism –> capitalism –> socialism)
  • bourgeoisie vs proletariat
  • class consciousness- lower class united to create this by notice their similarities
  • thesis - what is; antithesis: desire to change thesis –> Thesis and antithesis cannot exist peacefully so gotta change –> Synthesis: of the two by creating a new state and thus new order
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118
Q

Microsociology

A

face to face interactions, closer look at institutions and social interactions
-symbolic interactionism

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119
Q

Conservative View of Social Institutions

A

they are natural byproducts of human nature

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120
Q

Progressive View of Social Institutions

A

they are artificial creations that need to be redesigned if not helpful

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121
Q

Hidden Curriculums

A

things we pick up in school that are not intended part of education such as socialization by peers

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122
Q

Ecclesia

A

dominant religious organization that includes most members of society

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123
Q

Democracy

A

law making, choose officials

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124
Q

Dictatorships

A

obedience to authority

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125
Q

communism

A

all property owned by community

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126
Q

monarchy

A

government embodied by single person, king/queen is figurehead

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127
Q

Capitalism

A

private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand

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128
Q

Socialism

A

motivated by what benefits society as a whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands

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129
Q

Division of Labor to which theory

A

Functionalism - everyone is required to have responsibility in society

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130
Q

Medicalization

A

when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment
-patients/doctors construct illness out of ordinary behavior

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131
Q

Sick Role

A

expectations that can take break from responsibilities BUT deviant if don’t get better or return

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132
Q

Illness Experience

A

process of being ill an how people cope with illness; being ill can change a person’s self-identity

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133
Q

Social Epidemiology

A

look at health disparities through social indicators like race, gender, an income distribution, and how social factors affect a person’s health; looks at contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations ( social determinants of disease)

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134
Q

Functionalism- Social Facts

A

ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will exist after any individual is dead; only noticed when we resist ( ex law)

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135
Q

Functionalism- institutions

A

structures that meed the needs of society like education systems, financial institutions, marriage

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136
Q

Functionalism’s Cell

A

society is dependent on structures that create it - like cell is dependent on parts that make it up

  • manifest functions - business to meet a certain service
  • latent functions- unintended functions, indirect effects of institutions
  • Social Dysfunction- process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society
  • Small vs large societies - small societies are held together by similarities; large societies become interdependent on each other as everyone is specialized in different roles; social change threatens interdependence!!! SO institutions adapt only enough to accommodate change to maintain mutual interdep
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137
Q

Ludwig G’s expansion on Conflict Theory

A

said that society is shaped by war/conquest and cultural/ethnic conflicts lea to certain groups becoming dominant

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138
Q

Max Weber’s Input on Conflict Theory

A 
Didn't see class the major/supreme stratification factor several factors moderate people's reaction to inequality
-did not believe collapse of capitalism was inevitable
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139
Q

Social Constructionism

A

people actively shape their reality through social interactions so nothing’s inherent – things are social products made of the values of society that created it

  • Berger + Luckman - ideas are created through historical processes that are socially defined and culturally distinct
  • knowledge and world aspects are not real, only exist because we give them reality through social agreement
  • *we attach different meanings to different behaviors an have preconceptions of different people ( stereotypes)
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140
Q

Social Construct

A

concept/practice everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value, ex. money
-the self is a social construct too - our identity is created by interactions with other people, and our reactions to the other people

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141
Q

Weak Social Constructionism

A

proposes that social constructs are dependent on brute facts which are the most basic and fundamental facts like quarks in atoms, don’t rely on other facts
-institutional facts are created by social conventions and do rely on other facts, ex. money depends on the paper we have given value

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142
Q

Strong Social Constructionism

A

the whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits
-all knowledge is a social construct, no brute facts; we created the idea of quarks an everything else; no facts that just exist

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143
Q

George Mead

A

believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things; people change based on interactions with objects, events, ideas, others, and assign meaning to things to decide how to act

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144
Q

Herbert Blumer’s continuation of Mead

A

1- we act based on meaning
2-different people assign different meaning to things
3-the meaning we give something isn’t permanent, it adapt

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145
Q

Feminist Theory Gender Differences

A

socially constructed via process of soicalization

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146
Q

Gender oppression

A

women are oppressed an abused as well as unequal; institution of family is made to be beneficial to men

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147
Q

Structural Oppression

A

women’s oppression and inequality is due to capitalism, patriarchy, and racism; parallel to conflict theory

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148
Q

Rational Choice Theory

A

people not only motivated by money, but do what’s best to get more good

  • assume people are rational ( weigh costs and benefits) and act in self-interest ( personal desires and goals)
  • 3 assumptions ( completeness, transitivity, and independence of irrelevant alternatives)
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149
Q

Exchange Theory

A

application of rational choice theory to social interactions

  • look at society as a series of interactions between individuals - self-interest and interdependence
  • address decision making via cost/benefit analysis ( seek reward, avoid punishment)
  • ex. sexual selection, social selection
  • also the more often a reward is available, the less valuable it is ( supply/demand)
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150
Q

Social Selection

A
  • differential actions of social conditions or agencies on longevity and reproductive rates of individuals an strains in population
  • idea that an individual’s health can influence their social mobility and social conditions can affect reproductive rates of individuals in a population
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151
Q

Cohort

A

group of people

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152
Q

Age and advancement

A

-because of new advancements people live longer- estimated that by 2025, 1/4 of population will be >65

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153
Q

Dependency Ratio

A

age-based measurement takes people <14 and >65 who are not in labor force and compares that number to number of people who are ( 15-64)

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154
Q

Life Course Theory

A

research perspective that considers who experience from earlier in life affects outcomes later in life ; holistic perspective that calls attention to development processes and other experiences across a person’s life
– aging is a social, psychological, an biological process that begins from time you born to time you die

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155
Q

Age Stratification Theory

A

suggests age is way of regulating behavior of a generation

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156
Q

Activity Theory

A

look at how older generation looks at themselves – certain activities or jobs lost and those need to be replace so elderly can be engaged ( maintain moral well being)

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157
Q

Disengagement Theory

A

older adults an society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age ( ALSO considers elderly people who are still involved in society as not adjusting well)
-separation allows for self-reflection

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158
Q

Continuity Theory

A

people try to maintain some basic structure throughout their lives. As they age they make decisions to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging to preserve that basic strcture

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159
Q

Racialization

A

can ascribe racial identities to a minority group

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160
Q

Ethnicity

A

define by share language, religion, nationality, history, or some other cultural factor ( Race is physical)

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161
Q

Pluralism

A

encourages racial and ethnic variation

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162
Q

Sex, Gender, an Sexual Orientation

A

Biological Identity- sex born with
Gender Identity- gender they identify as ( gender is a social construction)
Gender expression- gender expressed ( gender is a social construction)
Attraction- gender to which are romantically attracted to ( orientation - which is not dependent on sex/gender of person)
Fornication-gender to which sexually attracted ( orientation)

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163
Q

Agender

A

reject gender categories

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164
Q

Gener Fluid

A

move across genders

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165
Q

Nonbinary

A

don’t identify with specific gender

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166
Q

XO

A

Turner’s MI nondisjunction - short females

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167
Q

XXY

A

Kleinfelter’s - male that’s female like

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168
Q

XXX, XYY

A

Superfemale an supermale ( Jacob’s)

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169
Q

Gender Roles

A

societal norms dictate what to do, say, how to act

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170
Q

Sex

A

biological traits

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171
Q

Gender

A

cultural meaning attached ( masculine/man, feminine/woman)

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172
Q

Sexuality

A

practices and identity which which you may align w/ sex and gener

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173
Q

Gender Schema

A

cognitions that constitute the male identity

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174
Q

Gender Script

A

organized information regarding order of actions appropriate to familiar situation

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175
Q

Functionalists on Cities

A

cities are sites of culture but also host to crime which disrupts society

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176
Q

Conflict Theorists on Cities

A

cities are sources of inequality

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177
Q

Suburbanization

A

movement away from cities

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178
Q

Urban Renewal

A

revamping old parts of cities to become better

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179
Q

Ghetto

A

specific racial, ethnic, religious minorities, concentrated due to SES inequities

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180
Q

Slum

A

heavily populated urban, informal settlement, squalor etc

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181
Q

Urban Decline

A

people move out of city centers and it can fall into despair ( unemployment/crime increase and population decrease)

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182
Q

Rural Rebound

A

people getting sick of cities and move back to rural areas

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183
Q

Growth Rate factors

A

fertility, migration, mortality

  • increase: births and immigration
  • decrease: death and emigration
  • growth is not always a positive number, growth rates of some countries is negative
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184
Q

Stages of Demographic Transition

A

1-early expansion-high birth rates due to limited OCP and high death rate due to disease/poor nutrition; large young and small old population; overall population remains fairly stable ( skinny pyramid)
2-Late expanding-beginning of development and improvement in conditions, population rises as death rate decreases-low death rate ; rapid increase in pop( regular pyramid)
3-stationary-death and birth rates fall cause OCP and better conditions, not economically beneficial, slower expansion and longer live elderly; slow increase in pop (half oval)
4-constricting-population stabilizes, both birth rates an death rates are low; stable population ( priest circle hat)
5-speculation, Malthusian Theorem suggests negative growth rate where run out food and apocalypse ( funny priest triangle hat)

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185
Q

World Systems

A
  • core
  • periphery
  • semiperiphery
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186
Q

Modernization Theory

A

all countries follow similar path of development to modern society

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187
Q

Dependency theory

A

reaction to modernization theory- use idea of core and periphery theories to look at inequalities and how periphery dependence on core limits ability to develop

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188
Q

Hyperlglobalist Perspective

A

new age of countries becoming interdependent and nation states themselves are less important

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189
Q

Skeptical Perspecitve

A

skeptical of hyperglobalist- thinks not global but regionalize cause third world countries are not integrate

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190
Q

Transformationalist Theory

A

doesn’t have specific cause or outcome, world will change but we don’t know how

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191
Q

Diffusion

A

ideas and practices spread from places where they are well known/apparent to places where they are new and often not observed

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192
Q

3 things social movements need

A

organization
leadership
resources

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193
Q

Mass Society Theory

A

skepticism about groups of social movements, think they can only form for people seeking refuge from main society ( only join for this reason)

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194
Q

Active Movements

A

change some aspect of society

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195
Q

Regressive/reactionary movements

A

resist change

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196
Q

Relative Deprivation Theory

A

actions of groups oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy is what social movements are about; those who join are not necessarily worst off; looks at relative deprivation
3 things needed: relative deprivation, deserving better, and belief conventional methods are useless to help
-there’s an upsurge in prejudice when people feel deprived of something they feel entitled to ( collective unrest, can lead to upsurge in prejudice and discrimination)

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197
Q

Resource Mobilization Theory

A

looks at social movements from different angle - instead of looking at people, look at factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources
-need money, political influence, media, and strong base to recruit/charismatic leader

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198
Q

Culture

A

way of life shared by group of individuals
-ways of thinking, behaving, and feeling connected to a shared knowledge of a society; allow members of the society to gain meaning from objects and ideas around them

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199
Q

Society

A

way people organize themselves

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200
Q

Normative Cultures

A

values and behaviors that are in line with larger societal norms

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201
Q

Popular culture

A

patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist in mainstream normative society

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202
Q

High Culture

A

patterns of experiences and attitudes that that exist in the highest class segments of society - tend to be associated with wealth and formality

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203
Q

Subculture

A

culture of a meso-level subcommunity that distinguishes itself from the larger dominant culture of society

  • affects your life for a longer period than a microculture
  • include ethnic groups
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204
Q

Microculture

A

can’t support person throughout lifespan - organizations like PhiDE

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205
Q

Counterculture

A

groups with expectations and values that strong disagree with the main values from the larger society

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206
Q

Culture Lag

A

fact that culture takes time to catchup with technological innovations, resulting in social problems

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207
Q

Material Culture

A

physical and technological aspects of our daily lives

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208
Q

Non-material culture

A

DO NOT include physical objects; ideas beliefs, values, resist change

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209
Q

Culture Shock

A

feelings of disorientation, uncertainty, an even fear when they encounter unfamiliar culture practices

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210
Q

Cultural Assimilation

A

the interpretation and fusion o f ethnic minorities into the dominant culture

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211
Q

Functionalists and Mass Media

A

role of mass media to provide entertainment and act as an agent of socialization, and enforce social norms

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212
Q

Conflict Theorists and Mass Media

A

media portrays and reflects and exacerbate divisions that exist in society

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213
Q

Media and Gatekeeing

A

process by which a small number of people and corporations control what information is presented on the media and how they move through a series of gates before they reach the public

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214
Q

Social Interactionism and Media

A

looks at media on microlevel to see how it shapes day to day behavior, social activities etc

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215
Q

Cultural Transmission

A

addresses how culture is learned, culture is passed along form generation to generation through various child-rearing practices

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216
Q

Absolute Poverty

A

doe snot consider variability; as median income rises, less people live in absolute poverty

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217
Q

Relative Poverty

A

if country’s income increases, absolute poverty line won’t change but median income level would

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218
Q

Social Capital

A

network of relationships among people who live and work in particular society

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219
Q

Cultural Cpaital

A

non-financial social assets that promote social mobility beyond economic means

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220
Q

Social Stratification

A

-society’s categorization of people into SE strata based on income, wealth, social status and power

-property of society, not individuals
reproduces form generation to generation
universal
not just quantitative, but also qualitative ( beliefs and attitudes)

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221
Q

Segregation

A

way of separating out groups of people and giving them access to a separate set of resources within the same society
“separate but equal” is rare

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222
Q

Environmental burden

A

areas with high poverty an lots of racial minorities often have few environmental benefits ( parks, green spaces), and face more health probelms

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223
Q

Environmental Justice

A

looks at the fair distribution of the environmental benefits and burdens within society across all groups

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224
Q

Concentration segregation

A

clustering of different groups

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225
Q

Centralizaiton segregatino

A

clustering and segregation in a central area

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226
Q

Index of issimilarity

A 
0 = total segregation
100= perfect distribution
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227
Q

Political isolation

A

communities segregated are politically weak because their political interests don’t overlap with other communities

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228
Q

Linguistic Isolation

A

communities who are isolated may develop own language, even in same city

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229
Q

Spatial Mismatch

A

opportunities for low-income people in segregated communities may be present but farther away, and harder to access ( gap between where people live an where opportunities)

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230
Q

Intersectionality

A

consider all the different levels of discrimination

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231
Q

Means of Production

A 
way we produce goods, factories and farms
there's a class divide; the wealthy own things and higher large amount of workers who don't own any of the means of production
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232
Q

Class Consciousness

A

Karl Marx and Conflict Theory again- workers in working class don’t realize they’re being exploited and oppressed by this capitalistic model of working and when they develop class consciousness they have solidarity and struggle to overcome oppresssion

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233
Q

False Consciousness

A

instead of solidarity of class consciousness solidarity, they are unable to see their oppression and commonalities

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234
Q

Cross-Sectional Study

A

look at group of different people at one moment in time

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235
Q

Cohort Study

A

follow a subset of population over a lifetime ( cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic)

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236
Q

Retrospective Cohort

A

look back at events that have already taken place

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237
Q

Longitudinal Study

A

data gathered over a long period of time

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238
Q

Prospective Cohort

A

follow group over period of time and record

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239
Q

Case-Control Study

A

observational study where 2 groups that differ in outcome are identified and compared to find a causal factor ( compare those with cancer to those that don’t have it)

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240
Q

Clinical Trial

A

highly controlled INTERVENTIONAL studies

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241
Q

Randomized Controlled Trial

A

people studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test efficacy/side effects of medical interventions like drugs; gold standard for clinical trial

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242
Q

Validity =

A

Accuracy
Internal Validity-extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warranted; confounding factors often impact the internal validity of an experiment

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243
Q

External Validity

A

whether results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people
-to protect this, sample must be completely random, an all situational variables must be tightly controlled

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244
Q

Vehicular Control

A

what experimental group does without the directly desired impact

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245
Q

Positive Control

A

treatment with known cause

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246
Q

Negative control

A

group with no response expected

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247
Q

Reliability=

A

Consistency/Repeatability

-if study were done a second time, would get same results?

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248
Q

Self-Concept

A

how someone perceives/evaluates themselves aka self-awareness

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249
Q

Parts of Self-concept

A

existential self- most basic part of self-concept, sense of being distinct and separate from others; awareness that the self is constant throughout life
-categorical self-even though we are separate we exist in the world with others

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250
Q

Carl Rogers and Humanistic; 3 pieces of self-concept

A

self image = what we believe we are
self esteem= how much value we place on ourselves
ideal-self= what we aspire to be
**when ideal self and real self are similar, we have a positive self concept; if not, we have incongruity

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251
Q

Social Identity Theory

A

2 parts: personal identity and social identity

  • we categorize ourselves then identify with a group and then compare ourself to that group to establish our and maintain our self-esteem
  • categorize, identify and compare
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252
Q

Self-esteem

A

respect and regard one has for onself

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253
Q

self-efficacy

A

belief in one’s ability to succeed in a particular situation

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254
Q

Person with Strong Self-efficacy

A

RISE: recover quickly, have strong interest, strong sense of commitment, and enjoy challenging tasks

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255
Q

Person with Weak Self-efficacy

A

FALL: focus on personal failures, avoid challenging tasks, quickly lose confidence in personal abilities, and lack the ability to handle difficult tasks and situations

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256
Q

Mastery of Experinece

A

strengthens self-efficacy

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257
Q

Social Modeling

A

seeing people like us complete the same task can strengthen self-efficacy

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258
Q

Social Persuasion

A

when someone says something positive about you, helps overcome self-doubt

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259
Q

Freud Psychosexual Development

A

*childhood
*5 stages
*fixation
~Old Age Parrots Love Grapes
-fixation is due to concept of libido- natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind, and when fixated can have lifelong effect well into adulthood; libido is centered at different parts of body at different times of development
Oral- 0-1 years-trust/comfort – dependency/aggression
Anal-1-3-control/independence-anal-retentive or messy
Phallic-3-6-Oedipus/electra-sexual dysfunction
Latent-6-12-social skills/sublimation
Genital-12+-sexual maturity-mentally healthy

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260
Q

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development

A

*lifetime, crisis at each stage
*8 stages
*conflict and resolution
Trust/Mistrust-0-1
Autonomy/Shame and doubt-1-3
Initiative/Guilt-3-6
Industry/Inferiority-6-12
Identity/Role Confusion-12-20
Intimacy/Isolation-20-40
Generativity/stagnation-40-65
Integrity/Despair-65+

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261
Q

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Development

A

*hands-on, active development
*knowledgable other
-social interactions
Elementary Motor Functions- MAPS ( memory, attention, perception, and sensation)
Higher Mental Functions with help of knowledgeable other
*zone of proximal development
*language means by which transmit information, powerful tool of intellectual adaptation

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262
Q

Kohlberg’s Moral Development

A

*moral reasoning
*3 stages with 2 levels each
*Heinz and Wife dying, nee drugs
1-Precoventional (pre-adolescent)
~Obedience vs punishment ( avoid punishment)
~Individualism and Exchange(gain reward)
2-Conventional
~Social Norms/conformity/acceptance
~Law and order
3-Post-conventional
~social contract ( Do right)
~Universal ethical principle (Golden Rule)

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263
Q

Reference Groups

A

group to which people refer in evaluating themselves

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264
Q

Cooley

A

everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity

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265
Q

Mead

A

only some people can influence someone’s identity and only in certain periods of life

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266
Q

Mead’s Social Behaviorism

A

Preparatory stage- imitation
Play stage- more aware of social relationships, pretend play
Game stage- start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of “generalized other”, realize people can take on multiple roles

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267
Q

Mead’s Me

A

what we learn through interaction with others; conform and social and Me not douche

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268
Q

Mead’s I

A

unsocialized, non-conforming, spontaneous

-response to the Me/attitudes of others

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269
Q

Mead’s Self

A

actual self is balance of I and Me

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270
Q

Cooley’s Looking Glass Self

A

socialization shapes our self-image;
-“looking glass self” - person’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others
3 steps
-how do I appear to others
-what do others think of me
3-revise how we think about ourselves based on what we IMAGINE other think

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271
Q

Internal/Dispositional Attirbution

A

about them

Fundamental attribution error: assign too much weight to internal disp rather than external

272
Q

External/Situational Attribution

A

environment

273
Q

Optimism Bias

A

believe bad things happen to others and not to us

274
Q

Attribution and Covariation Model

A

call it based on:
consistency ( time) - high means disp
distinctiveness (situation)- high means situ
consensus (other people)- high means situ

275
Q

Actor-Observer Bias

A

we are victims of our circumstance but others are willful actors

276
Q

Ego-preservation

A

more likely to blame things on external factors for us

277
Q

Cognitive Bias

A

tendency o think in certain ways; often cause deviations from standard of rationality or good judgement

278
Q

Inividualistic Cultures

A

attribute success to internal and failure to external

279
Q

Collectivist Cultures

A

attribute success as external and failure to internal

280
Q

Self-serving bias

A

preserve our self-esteem by attributing success to internal and failures to extrenal

281
Q

Stereotyping

A

attribute a certain though/cognition to a group of individuals, and overgeneralize

282
Q

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

A

stereotypes can lead to behaviors that affirm the original stereotypes; vicious cycle

283
Q

Cognition
Affect
Behavior

A

Stereotype
Prejudice
Discrimination

284
Q

Authoritarian Personality

A 
obey superiors, no one else
oppressive
inflexible in thinking
protect ego
avoid confrontation
285
Q

Frustration Aggression Hypothesis

A

getting frustrated can lead to prejudice and bottling it up can lead to aggression

286
Q

Stigma

A

extreme disapproval of a person based on some behavior or quality of that person; typically a culture will collectively stigmatize a person based on overt physical/deviant characteristics

287
Q

Self-Stigma

A

individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they have had and feel rejected by society and then isolate selves

288
Q

First Impressions

A

long, strong, and built upon; primacy bias - first impression more important than subsequent; recency bias- most recent actions are very important too

289
Q

Halo Effect

A

tendency of people to judge inherently good/bad natures; rather than looking at individual characteristics; also a reverse-halo effect

290
Q

Physical Attractiveness Stereotype

A

believe attractive people have more positive personality traits

291
Q

Just World Hypothesis

A

noble actions performed by an individual are rewarded, while evil acts are punished
“you got what was coming to you”
-people think like this to rationalize their goo fortune or misfortune

292
Q

Xenocentrism

A

judge another culture as SUPERIOR to one’s own culture

293
Q

cultural imperialism

A

deliberate imposition of one’s own cultural values on another culture

294
Q

In Group

A

one we are connected with - stronger interactions an more influential

295
Q

Group Favoritism

A

we favor people in our own group but those in other groups are netural

296
Q

Out Group Derogation

A

we are super friendly to our own group and discriminate toward other group

297
Q

Geographical Proximity

A

most powerful indicator of friendships and relationships ; mere exposure effect applies to everything from music to numbers to objects to love

298
Q

Perceived Similarity and Couples

A

couples stay together due to perceived similarity- cause over time their interests and beliefs become more aligned
we also like people like ourselves both physically and all else

299
Q

Projection Bias

A

we assume others have the same beliefs we do

300
Q

False consensusus

A

we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not

301
Q

Sexual Dimorphism

A

difference between male an female traits

302
Q

Secure Attachment

A

explore with mom ; upset without mom; happy upon return

303
Q

Insecure Attachment

A

don’t explore with mom; upset without mom; still sad upon return OR ignore ignore, ignore

304
Q

Parenting Styles

A

can be authoritarian, permissive, or authoritative (best)

305
Q

Aggression

A

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy

306
Q

Biological Aggression

A

amygdala and frontal lobe; testosterone from testes

307
Q

Psychological Aggression

A

Frustration-Aggression principle - idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression; high temperatures can lead to frustration

308
Q

Socio-cultural Aggression

A

people act more aggressively in groups; deindividuation and social scripts

309
Q

Social Scripts

A

when people are in new situations they rely on social scripts or instructions provided by society on how to act

310
Q

Kin Selection

A

people act more altruistically to close kin than distant/non-kin

311
Q

Reciprocal Altruism

A

people are more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future

312
Q

Cost Signaling

A

signals to others that person who’s giving has resources and is open to cooperation; people have increased trust in those they know have helped other sin the past

313
Q

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

A

suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy; empathy has an early developmental trajectory

314
Q

Social Support Types

A

Emotional- love, trust, caring ( listening and empathizing)
Esteem- expressions of confidence/encouragement
Informational Support- sharing information with us or giving us advice
Tangible support- financial support, goods, services
Companionship support- gives someone sense of social belonging

315
Q

Status

A

person’s social position in society

316
Q

Role Strain

A

when you can’t carry out all the obligations of ONE status, tension within that one status

317
Q

Role Conflict

A

conflict between TWO different statuses, unlike role strain

318
Q

Primary Groups

A

Core social group-closest members of the group to you

319
Q

Secondary Groups

A

formal an business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal, usually short-term and only see them sometimes

320
Q

Dramaturgical Front Stage

A

when people are in a social setting

321
Q

Dramaturgical Back Stage

A

more private area of our lives, when act is over and you can be yourself; where you work on impression management

322
Q

Impression Management

A

our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage to be viewed in a positive way; there are multiple front stages and we play a different role every time

323
Q

Unintentional Discrimination

A

how policies can discriminate unintentionally
Side-effect discrimination- how one institution/sector can influence another negatively
Past-In Present discrimination-how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed can have consequences for people in the present

324
Q

Prejudice

A

attitudes that prejudge a group, usually negative and not based on facts; make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences

325
Q

Discrimination

A

differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities

326
Q

Utilitarian Organizations

A

institutions designed for a specific purpose, and try to achieve maximum efficiency– members are paid/rewarded for their efforts

327
Q

Normative Organizations

A

members come together through shared goals

328
Q

Coercive Organizations

A

members on’t have choice about membership

329
Q

Bureaucratization

A

process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy

330
Q

Iron Rule of Oligarchy

A

even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they’re governed by select few

331
Q

McDonaldization

A

policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate organizations in society– principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control

332
Q

Max Weber and Organizations

A

Ideal Bureaucracy
1-division of labor ( can lead to trained incapacity wherein workers are so specialized they lose touch of overall picture)
2-hierarchy or organization
3-written rules and regulations
4-impersonality
5-employment based on technical qualifications ( can lead to Peter Principle where every employee keeps getting promoted until reach level of incometence

333
Q

Animal Autocommunicaiton

A

can given information to themselves; like bats with echolocation

334
Q

Anthromorphism

A

attributing human characteristics to non-human animals

335
Q

Foraging and Cost-Benefit Analysis

A

can be solitary foraging or group foraging ( larger prey and can benefit everyone but can lead to competition when food is scarce)

336
Q

Random Mating

A

all equally likely to mate with each other, not influenced by environ, heredity, or social limitation ( Hardy Weinberg!)

337
Q

Assortative Mating

A

non-random mating where individuals with certain personalities tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency ( inbreeding problem)

338
Q

Dissortative Mating ( Non-assortative mating)

A

opposite where individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than random mating

339
Q

Inclusive Fitness

A

NUMBER OF OFFSPRING AN ANIMAL HAS, how they support them, and how offspring support each other —on large scale: evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves

340
Q

Evolutionary Game Theory

A

those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations; reproduction and environment are central

  • predicts the availability of resources and social behavior; strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players
  • *diff from game theory cause game theory involves INTENTION while evolutionary game theory may not conscious intention on part of players
341
Q

Nonassociative Learning

A

when organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus with no reward or punishment

342
Q

habituation

A

person tunes out the stimulus

343
Q

Dishabituation

A

when previously habituated stimulus no longer is - stimulus no longer habituated

344
Q

Sensitization

A

increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus

345
Q

Associative learning

A

when one event is connected to another ( classical and operant conditioning)

346
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

Pavlov-produced when the neutral stimulus is presented shortly before the same response as the unconditioned stimulus
no change in behavior

347
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

B.F. Skinner - focuses on the relationship between behavior and consequences and how those in turn influence the behavior

348
Q

Primary Reinforcers

A

innately satisfying/desirable, like foo

349
Q

Secondary Reinforcers

A

those learned to be reinforcers, such as previously neutral stimuli ( dolphin and whistle)

350
Q

Token economy

A

system of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior, reinforcers are “tokens” that can be exchanged for other reinforcers ( prizes)

351
Q

Shaping

A

emphasize learning through practice

successively reinforce behaviors that approximate the target behavior

352
Q

Taxis

A

purposeful movement, like bugs toward light

353
Q

Kinesis

A

rats randomly scurrying in different directions with no purpose

354
Q

Insight learning

A

solve a problem using past skills, the “aha” movement is insight learning

355
Q

Latent Learning

A

learned behavior is not expressed until required

356
Q

Aversive Control/Learning

A

behavior is motivated by threat of something unpleasant; taste aversion - no longer eat something due to unpleasant experience

357
Q

Adaptive Associations

A

those who have a biological advantage are learned faster than learning with no biological value

358
Q

Escape Learning

A

escape an unpleasant stimulus, like fire - there’s an element of surprise cause you’re thrown into the condition and need way out to terminate an ongoing stimulus; response is conditioned to escape in response to stimuli and then stimuli goes away

359
Q

Avoidance

A

avoid fire before it arrives–there’s a signal before aversive situation; results in continue avoidance cause reinforced by removal of pain/undesireable stimuli

360
Q

Persuasion components and Elaboration Likelihood Model

A

method for attitude/behavior change; elaboration likelihood model explains how people influenced by content of speech vs more superficial features

  • Message characteristics- message itself, clarity, how well thought out
  • Source Characteristics- their level of expertise, trustworthy, credibility, physical environment
  • Target characteristics- characteristics of listener, such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence
361
Q

2 Paths of Information Processing

A

Central- people are persuaded by the content of argument - can lead to deep processing and results in a lasting attitude change
Peripheral- don’t care, little motivation/interest- leads to shallow processing of information and creates a temporary attitude change

362
Q

Reciprocal Determinism

A

interaction between a persons’s behaviors, personal factors ( motivation), and environment

  • Social-cognitive theory
  • Bandura who worked on observational learning
363
Q

Social Cognitive Theory

A

views behaviors as being influenced by people’s actions and cognitions in their social context; talking about interactions between individual and situation they’re in

364
Q

Learned Helplessness

A

when tone is sounded dogs receive electric shock, but could press button to stop the shock but don’t because were in previous situation where had no control– therefore uncontrollable bad events can lead to perceived lack of control, which leads to general helpless behavior

365
Q

Tyranny of Choice

A

too many choices can negatively impact our cognition and behavior - one result is information overload is a result which can lead to decision paralysis and increased regret over choice made

366
Q

Desires and Temptation

A

humans have desires which aren’t necessarily bad but they can become a temptation ( when they conflict with our long-term values and goals) – self-control is focusing on long term goals while putting off short-term temptations ; marshmallow test and kids

367
Q

Ego Depletion

A

idea that self-control is a limited resource – if you use a lot of it, can get used up and less to use in future
self control requires a lot of energy and focus

368
Q

Freud and Personality - Psychoanalytic Theory

A

personality is shaped by a person’s unconscious thoughts, feelings, and past memories ( particularly in childhood)

369
Q

Libido

A

-natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind

motivation for survival, growth, pleasure, etc.

370
Q

Eros Drive

A

life drive

371
Q

Death Instinct/Thanatos rive

A

drives aggressive behavior fueled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others

372
Q

Pathological Defense Mechanisms

A

denial- pretend something hasn’t happened

373
Q

Immature Defense Mechanisms

A

Projection - throw attributes to someone else ( no, they’re mean)
–> Projective identification- person targeted with projection can start believing, feeling, having those things attributed to them

Passive Aggression- aggressively do something, don’t do, or do slowly

374
Q

Neurotic Defense Mechanisms ( 3RsID)

A 
Intellectualization- take intellectual aspects and detach from emotional aspect
rationalization
regression
repression
displacement
reaction formation
375
Q

3RsID - Rationalization

A

make self believe you were not at fault; false logic or false reasoning, avoid blame

376
Q

Regression

A

act like baby, tantrum, whine

377
Q

Repression

A

push thoughts into unconscious, unconsciously

378
Q

Displacement

A

angry at someone but displace on someone else ( a safer target)

379
Q

Reaction Formation

A

unconscious feeling- make person do opposite ( hate dogs go volunteer at animal shelter) –say or do exact opposite of what actually want/feel

380
Q

Mature Defense Mechanisms (HASS)

A

humor- jokes/humor to alleviate feelings in socially acceptable way
altruism
sublimation- channel negative to positive energy; transform unwanted impulses into something less harmful
suppression- consciously push thoughts to unconscious but can access at later time

381
Q

Id

A

ucnonscious, develops after birth and demands immediate gratification
pleasure principle- immediate pleasure, avoid pain, immature

382
Q

Ego

A

part of conscious and unconscious; involved in our perceptions, thoughts and judgements, seeks long-term gratification

383
Q

Superego

A

develops around age 4; our moral conscience; also part of conscious and unconscious
“Reality Principle”- play role in real world
-internalization of cultural idea and parental sanctions, “morals”, tries to replace reality with morality

384
Q

Fixation

A

when libido overgratified or not gratified, fixation occurs at a certain stage

385
Q

Carl Rogers and Humanistic Theory

A

*free will
*humans are inherently good
*most basic motive of all people is self-actualization - so self-motivated to improve
focus on conscious
-**Maslow - hierarchy of needs ( physio –> safety -> love –> self-esteem –> self-actualization)
*growth is nurtured when individual is genuine and through acceptance from others
Self-concept – achieved when we bring genuiness and acceptance together to achieve growth-promoting climate **importance of congruency between self-concept and our actions to be fulfilled

386
Q

Cloninger Personality

A

brain reward systems - motivation, punishement, reward

387
Q

Gray

A

behavioral inhibition/activation and also reward/punishment

388
Q

Eysenck’s PEN

A

reticular formation - 3 dimensions of personality but different degrees – PEN
P- psychoticism ( degree to which reality is isorted)
Extroversion
Neuroticism

389
Q

Social Potency Trait

A

degree to which person assumes leadership roles in social situations–common in twins reared separately

390
Q

Traditionlism

A

tendency to follow authority

391
Q

Temperament

A

innate disposition, our mood/activity level, consistent throughout life

392
Q

Behaviorist Theory

A

*environment determines behavior
personality is result of learned behavior patterns based on person’s environment; it’s deterministic - begin with blank slate and environment completely determines behavior/personalities
*focus on observable and measurable behavior
Skinner-strict behaviorist
Pavlov- classical conditioning

393
Q

Personality Traits/Trait Thoery

A

*stable characteristic –> consistent behavior
stable predisposition towards a certain behavior; straightforward way to describe personality; puts it in patterns of behavior

394
Q

Surface Traits

A

evident in person’s behavior

395
Q

Source Traits

A

factors underlying human personality ( fewer and more abstract)

396
Q

Gordon Allport

A

4500 different descriptive; 3 categories
Cardinal Traits- characteristics that direct most of person’s activities- dominant traits, influence all our behaviors, including secondary and central traits
central Traits- honesty, sociability, shyness; less dominant than cardinal
Secondary trait- love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat, more preferences/attitudes

397
Q

16 Cattell

A

16 personality facto questionaire

398
Q

Myerrs Briggs

A

off Carl Jung - 4 letters –> 16 personality types

399
Q

5 Factor Model -Big 5- OCEAN

A

openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

400
Q

Cattel, Eysenk an Big 5 USED

A

Factor analysis - statistical method that categorizes and determines major categories of traits

401
Q

Social Cognitive Theory vs Behaviorism

A

unlike behaviorism where environment controls us entirely, cognition is also important
SCT- Bandura and Bobo Doll experiment
Learning-performing distinction

402
Q

Motivation for Learning

A

AM I Motivated

Attention, Memory, Imitation, Motivation

403
Q

Distress

A

negative stress that builds and bad

404
Q

Eustress

A

Positive stress that’s stressful but challenging/motivating

405
Q

Neustress

A

neutral stress, not directly actively affecting like natural disaster across world

406
Q

Mania

A

speak fast, sleep little, bad decisions due to impaired judgement

407
Q

Delusions

A

fixed false beliefs

408
Q

Hallucinaitons

A

sensory perceptions without disorganized thinking

409
Q

Schizophrenia

A

cognitive ( attention, organization, planning abilities)
negative (blunted emotions)
Positive ( hallucinations, delusions)
decreased cerebral cortex size
INCREASED DOPAMINE
meso(VTA in mibrain)corticolimbic pathway
*diagnose wieth clinical interview to look at behavior

410
Q

Prodrome

A

period of time before schizophrenia symptoms actually present - see deterioration of person’s behavior and functioning

411
Q

Depression

A

SIG E. CAPS
frontal lobe and limbic problems
raphe nuclei of brainstem - dec serotonin
locus coreulus ( axons to cerebrum) - dec NE
VTA-dopamine
*monoamines
*5HTTLPR

412
Q

Monoamines

A

E, NE, dopamine, serotonin, and melatonin

413
Q

Catecholamines

A

dopamine, NE, E

414
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease

A

**dec ACh
lose basic activities of daily living (ADL)
atrophy- cerebrum
loss neurons, plaques ( amyloid - beta(
neurofibrillary tangles - clumps of protein tau
*nucleus basalis of cerebrum- Ach
*ApoE4

415
Q

Parkinson’s Disease

A

dec dopamine
slow, stooped, shuffle, tremor
loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra ( which rojects to area called striatum, and loss of DA neurons causes most of neural abnormalities
Lewy bodies in DA neurons which contain protein alpha synclein
Lewy Body disease
*leading candidate for treatment with stem cells

416
Q

Informative Social Influence

A

**defer cause IDK

look to group for guidance when you don’t know what to do, and ask what to do

417
Q

Normative Social Influence

A

***acceptance/avoid social rejection
even if you know what’s right, do what group does to avoid social rejection; may internally believe something differently
*Solomon Asch and Gestalt- both normative, informative, and perceptual error

418
Q

Anomie

A

breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community; uncertainty so weakend sense of morality criteria for behavior

  • can result in social groups disbanding, alienation
  • compliance, identification, internalization
419
Q

Demand characteristics

A

how participants change behavior to match expectations of experimenter
**Milgram Yale Shock experiments

420
Q

Milgram’s Yale Shock exps

A

just world phenomenon
passing responsibility of actions to others
self-serving bias ( we could never commit acts like this)most of us would
fundamental attribution error

421
Q

Zimbardo Stanford Prison study

A 
situational attribution
deindividuation
cognitive dissonance
internalization
demand characteristics
selection bias tho
422
Q

Factors that Influence Conformity

A

Group Size, unanimity, group status, group cohesion, observed behavior, public response, prior commitment, feelings of insecurity

423
Q

Factors that Influence Obeying

A 
closeness to authority
physical proximity
legitimacy of authority
institutional authority
victim distance
depersonalization
role models for definace
424
Q

Bystander Effect

A

factor of diffusion of responsibility theory and deindividuation

425
Q

Hawthorne Effect/Observer Effect

A

modify or improve behavior in response to being observed/awareness to being observed

426
Q

Anterior Chamber of Eye

A

space filled with aqueous humor, which provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball and allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of cornea and iris

427
Q

Conjunctiva

A

first layer light hits

428
Q

Pupil

A

hole made by iris ( colored muscle that constricts and relaxes to change size of pupil)

lot of light- smaller
little light- bigger

429
Q

Lens

A

bends light so it goes to back of eyeball

430
Q

Infromation Processing Model

A

proposes our brains are similar to computers- we get input from environment, process it, and output decisions

  • assumes a serial processing except computers do serial processing while our brain does parallel processing
  • bottom-up
  • limited storage capacity and limited attention capacity
431
Q

Sensory Memory/Sensory Register

A

temporary register of all senses you’re taking in
iconic - half sec
echoic - 3-4 secs

432
Q

Sensory Memory Tests

A

partial report technique or whole report technique

433
Q

Working memory (7 +/- 2)

A

what you’re thinking at the moment; magic number 7 - you can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information at a time
-WM explains serial position effect

434
Q

Processing Order

A

central executive coordinates visuo-spatial and phonological loop information –> stored episodic buffer –> long term memory (unlimited)

435
Q

Visuo-spatial sketchpad

A

visual and spatial information processed here

436
Q

Phonological loop

A

verbal information processes here, capacity of about 2 seconds

437
Q

Dual Coding Hypothesis

A

it’s easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone

438
Q

Method of loci

A

imagine moving through a familiar place in each place leaving a visual representation of topic to be remembered

439
Q

Long-term Memory

A

capacity is unlimited; 2 main categories - explicit ( declarative), and implicit ( non-declarative)

440
Q

Explicit/Declarative

A

explicit are facts/events you can clearly describe

441
Q

Semantic Memory- form of explicit memory

A

facts; or has to do with words- anytime you take vocabulary test or state capitals, remembering simple facts

442
Q

Episodic Memory-form of explicit memory

A

event-related memories

443
Q

Implicit/Non-declarative/Procedural memory

A

implicit memories are things you may not articulate, such as riding a bicycle

  • all memories formed by conditioning are implicit, unconscious, habits
  • habits/implicit memory is stored int eh ganglia
444
Q

Priming-form of implicit memory

A

previous experiences influence current interpretation of an event; less additional activation is needed
*prior activation of nodes/associations often without our awareness

445
Q

Negative Priming

A

previous exposure to a stimulus/event unfavorably influences new one

446
Q

Encoding

A

transferring sensory information into memory ( from temporary store in working memory to permanent store in long-term memory

447
Q

Retrieval Cues

A

Priming
context ( environment you encode and take test in)
State-dependent ( your state at moment)

448
Q

Cued Recall

A

give “pl” for planet

449
Q

False information

A

inaccurate recollections of an event

450
Q

Schema

A

mental blueprint containing common aspects of world, often used instead fo reality

451
Q

Misleading information

A

car crash video, language used can influence memory and cognition

452
Q

Source monitoring/source amnesia

A

when people recall information they often forget the information’s source
knowledge but can’t recollect from where, when, how

453
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

highly vivid memories, often emotional, BUT still susceptible to reconstruction cause a memory is just neural connections; connections between neurons strengthen or weaken ( long term potentiation )

454
Q

Lont term potentiation

A

with repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neuron converts into greater post-synaptic neuron, stronger synapse, and when it lasts longer called long term potentiation – learning!!

455
Q

Decay

A

when we don’t encode something well, or don’t retrieve it for a while, we can’t at all anymore
Ebbinghaus - initial rate of decay is fast but then levels out after about 30 days

456
Q

Relearning

A

just because you can’t retrieve something doesn’t mean it’s completely gone– take less time to learn things second time around cause of savings

457
Q

Interference

A

Retroactive- new learning impairs old information

Proactive-something you learned in past impairs learning in future

458
Q

Decline in Aging

A

RED
Recall
Episodic/explicit processing
Divided Attention

459
Q

Stable or Improved in Aging

A

Stable
Recognition
implicit/procedural

Improve
Semantic
Emotional reasoning
Crystallized IQ - knowledge and experience

460
Q

Dementia

A

forgetting to point of interfering with normal life- results form exceissive damage to rbain tissue

461
Q

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

A

caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine - due to malnutrition, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism
thiamine converts carbohydrates into glucose cells need for energy
poor balance, abnormal eye movements, confusion, and memory loss
*Precursor Wernicke’s encephalopathy-if diagnosed, can prevent KS
**main symptom is severe memory loss ( antero and retro amnesia) accompanied by confabulation ( patients make up stories to fill in memories)
-treatment is healthy diet, abstain from alcohol, take vitamins

462
Q

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

A 
Sensorimotor
Properational
Concrete operational
Formal operational 
*disequilibrium drives our learning process cause we accomodate to restore equilibrium
463
Q

Sensorimotor stage

A

0-2
object permanence developed during this stage
stranger anxiety

464
Q

Preoperational Stage

A 
2-7
egocentric ( no empathy or inability to understand perspective of others)
pretend play
imagine
no conservation
465
Q

Concentrate Operational

A 
7-11
conservation learned
begin to learn empathy
math skills, reasoning, logic conversion
BUT NO HYPOTHETICAL reasoning
466
Q

Formal Operational Stage

A

12+
reason abstract/hypotheticalconsequences and reason consequences, where sophisticated moral reasoning begins to take place

467
Q

Schemas, Assimilation, Accomodation

A

we can accommodate by adjusting previously existing schema or adding new ones
assimilation- “same schema”
accommodate- “change and create”

468
Q

Problem Solving Methods

A

Trial and Error
Algorithm
Heuristics- mental shortcut to find solution quicker than other — means-ends analysis and working backwards
Intuition- relying on instinct, high chance of error

469
Q

Fixation

A

getting stuck on a wrong appraoch

470
Q

Insight and incubation

A

insight is aha moment which can be obtained after let problem incubate for some time

471
Q

Type I error

A

false positive

472
Q

Type II error

A

false negative

473
Q

heuristic

A

shortcuts to make a decision, rule of thumb
availability- based on examples that you’ve experienced
representativeness- based on a prototype you’ve constructed in head

474
Q

Conjugation Fallacy

A

belief that co-occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one ( feminist and bank teller vs just bank teller)e

475
Q

Anchoring and Adjustment heuristic

A

start at set point/anchor and adjust based on new information

476
Q

Overconfidence

A

going into something without having a lot of information - like a test

477
Q

Belief Perseverance

A

ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts; during elections ignore facts about someone you like

478
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

seek out only confirming facts, information that fits your idea

479
Q

Framing Effects

A

how you present the decision - number of people to save vs let die

480
Q

Hierarchical Semantic Network Model

A

initially thought higher order to lower order categories; animal –> bird –> ostrich

481
Q

Modified Semantic Network Model

A

not hierarchical but based on the associations and evidence that an individual develops based on experience and knowledge

when you activate one concept, pulling related concepts with it based on strength of connection
stronger nodal links means decrease processing time

482
Q

Spearman’s 1 g

A

*1 tip in Spear
g factor –general intelligence
evidence from fact that people who score well on one test tend to score well on other types of testes as well, using a consistent ability of g factor

483
Q

Sternberg’s Triachic Theory of 3

A

Analytical/Academic ( IQ scores; 100 w/ deviation = 15)
Creative/generative ( generate novel ideas and adapt)
Practical ( solve ill-defined problems)

484
Q

Emotional Intelligence

A

perceived, understand and manage emotions in interactiosn with others

485
Q

Fluid intelligence

A

ability to reason quickly and abstractly; dec with age

486
Q

Crystallized intelligence

A

accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; inc with age

487
Q

Fixed mindset

A

intelligence is bioloigcally set and unchanging

488
Q

Growth mindset

A

intelligence is changeable if you learn more; those with a growth mindset accomplish more ( more motivated)

489
Q

Gardner’s 8 intelligences

A

differentiates into different modalities, that are independent of each other

490
Q

Thurnston’s 7 factor Theory

A 
word fluence
verbal
spacial
perceptual speed
numerical
inductive
memory
similar to spearman cause though if do well on one, will do well on others
491
Q

Galton’s idea of hereditary genius

A

believed that human ability is hereditary

492
Q

Binet’s idea of mental age

A

how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age

493
Q

Guilford’ Convergent Intelligence

A

convergent intelligence- IQ test related to intelligence

494
Q

Behaviorists on Language and Cognition

A

believe language is just conditioned behavior- we learned it

495
Q

Nativists on Language and Cognition

A

rationalist, language must be innate

496
Q

Theory of universal Grammar

A

all languages are alike in structural foundation and cause common rules and patterns; we are able to speak without fomral instruction

497
Q

Universalism on Language

A

thought determines language completely - thought dictates language and language is created from a set of universal semantic distinctions and constructions which shape human language

498
Q

Piaget on Language

A

he believed once children were able to think in a certain way, they then developed language to describe those thoughts so cognition influences language development

499
Q

Vygotsky on Language

A

language and cognition are both independent but converge through development; eventually learn to use them at the same time

500
Q

Weak Linguistic Determinism aka Linguistic Relativisim

A

language influences thought/cognition “girl pushes boy”

501
Q

Strong Linguistic Determinism aka Sapir-Whorfian Hypothesis

A

language determines cognition/thought ( Hopi have no grammatical tense)
*people understand their world through language, and language in turn shapes how we experience hte world

502
Q

Language Parts

A

Lexicon- set of vocabulary items
Lexical access- identify a word and connect to its meaning which has been store din long term
Phonology- phonetic component “ sound” - 40 in english
morphology- structure of words, grammatical system
Semantics- meaning associated with word
Syntax- how words put together in sentences
Pragmatics- dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge, cadence, inflection

503
Q

Neural Networking theory

A

innate language mechanism, that can be activated by experience

504
Q

Nativist (innatist)

A

Noam Chomsky
children are born with ability to learn language; each society has its own language; language is innate
Chomsky’s language acquisition device (LAD later called universal grammar - all languages shared some basic elements like nouns, verb) that allowed them to learn language
-along with idea there’s a critical period from birth to 9 years old, the period of time a child is most able to learn a language
*LAD only operates during critical period; once start using LAD it specialized to your language and unable to detect sound and grammar from other lanague

505
Q

Baby word production

A 
9-12 months: babble
12-18 months: 1 word/month
18-20 months: explosion of language and combos
2-3: longer sentences, 3 words +
5 yrs: rules of lanageu are mastered
506
Q

Learning Theory of language/ Behaviorist

A

BF Skinner
children aren’t born with anything, only acquire language through reinforcement; learn to say mama cause every time say that, mother reinforces behavior ( doesn’t explain words produced that have not been heard before)
Skinner- behaviorist that models are trained in lanaguge by operant conditioning

507
Q

Social Interactionist Approach of language

A

Vygotsky
believe biological and social factors have to interact for children to learn language
children’s desire to communicate with adults makes them learn language

508
Q

Global Aphasia

A

when both Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas are damaged -

509
Q

Arcuate fasiculus

A

2 areas connected by bundle of nerves- when damaged, conduction aphasia - ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted

510
Q

Stroke to left hemisphere

A

can’t speak, over time with therapy some can retain other speech-related parts of brain by creating new connections - neural plasticity

511
Q

Corpus callosum

A

if severed have a split-brain patient – surgery effects language since right side of brain can’t communicate with the left language side; have to put things in right visual field in order to process them since would synapse in left hemisphere ( cause contralateral)

512
Q

Limbic system

A

HAT Hippo

513
Q

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

A

destroy amygdala bilateral–> mellow, hyperorality, hypersexuality, and disinhibited behavior, impulsive, ignore social behaviors

514
Q

Hippocampus and destruction

A

converts short-term memories to long-term ; if destroy, have old memories intact, just can’t make new ones

515
Q

left hemisphere

A

positive emotions

language

516
Q

right hemisphere

A

negative emotions

emotional tone

517
Q

Prefrontal Cortex and Phineas Gage

A

higher-order functions, everything that distinguishes humans, executive control, solve problems, make decisions, how act in social situations

518
Q

6 Universal Emotions

A

Stacey F. DASH - sadness, fear, disgust, anger, surprise, happiness

519
Q

Schacter Singer/ 2 factor theory

A

E –> physio and cog –> emotion –> action

520
Q

Lazarus theory

A

emotion depends on how the situation is appraised/labeled/interpreted; and how we label is based on cultural/individual differences
E–>appraisal–>physio and emotion

521
Q

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A

bells shaped curve- people perform best when they are moderately aroused

522
Q

Moods

A

moods typically last longer than emotions

523
Q

Appraisal Theory of Stress

A

Primary Appraisal= assess stress as positive/benign, stressful/negative, or irrelevant

Secondary Appraisal=material preparedness to deal with stressor-harm, threat, challenge (how to overcome it)

524
Q

Categories of Stressors

A

significant life changes
catastrophic events
daily hassles
ambient stressor ( pollution)

525
Q

Stress and Endocrine Response

A

adrenal glands release E and NE ( catecholamines) and cortisol

526
Q

Tend and befriend and Stress

A

sometimes response to have support systems - Oxytocin is important for this ( peer bonding, strongly linked to estrogen)

527
Q

General Adaptation Syndrome

A

1-alarm phase ( dip from normal health)
2-resistance ( flee, huddle, cortisol)
3-exhaustion -if resistance isn’t followed by recovery, our tissues become damaged and we become susceptible to illness

528
Q

Physical Effects of Stress

A

CAD, hypertension, vascular disease due to high BP ( blood vessels become distended, build up more muscle and become more rigid and has spots that attract fatse)
Metabolism- body increases cortisol and glucagon which can lead to DM; cortisol also tells body to use fats as soruce of energy
Reproduction-infertility and impotence cause E and P, LH, FSH, and Testosterone inhibited
Immune Function- causes inflammation, acute stress can lead to overuse of immune system and attack own bodyor suppressed

529
Q

Hippocampus and Frontal Cortex and Stress

A

have glucocorticoid receptors for cortisol, so affects memory and learning and executive function/behavior

530
Q

Anhedonia

A

inability to experience pleasure, so perceive more stress

531
Q

Depression and Serotonin

A

anterior cingulate of frontal cortex stops making and responding to serotonin

532
Q

Anxiety and Amygdala

A

centered here cause anxiety has to do with our fears and phobias

533
Q

Coping with stress

A

Perceived control
optimism
social support

534
Q

Managing Stress

A

Exercise
Medication
religious beliefs/faith
cognitive flexibility

535
Q

Low effort/low-effect coping

A

minority students learn to put in only minimal effort as they believe they are being discriminated against by the dominant culture

536
Q

Brainstem

A

midbrain, pons, medulla

537
Q

PNS nerves

A

12 pairs cranial nerves; 31 pairs spinal nerves

538
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

large diameter axons, with thick myelin sheath so transmit fast

539
Q

Nociceptors and thermoreceptors

A

small diameter, less myelination, slower; end in uncovered terminals unlike mechano

540
Q

Procession of Feeling

A

Touch, Pressure, Stretch, Vibration

541
Q

Man Crush Monday- RePost

A

Meissner’s corpuscle, Merkel, Ruffini, Pacinian

542
Q

Receptor layers

A

MCM: papillary dermis (stratum basale), R: reticular dermis; P=subcutaneous layer ( hypodermis)

543
Q

Receptor Sensitivity

A

Ends MCP- require changing touch to fire

Middle MR- need sustained touch to fire

544
Q

hair follicle receptor

A

reticular dermis, changing, hair movement/light touch

545
Q

Tendon

A

Muscle to Bone

546
Q

Ligament

A

LB^2 - bone to bone

547
Q

Fasciae

A

FM^2 - muscle to muscle

548
Q

Spinal Cord Myelination

A

Sprite outside

549
Q

Brain Myelination

A

grey, outside! use your brain!

550
Q

Upper Motor Neuron Tracts

A

corticospinal tract ( to spine) and corticobulbar tract ( to brainstem)

551
Q

Frontal Lobe

A

motor, PFC, Broca’s area

552
Q

Parietal Lobe

A

somatosensory cortex, spatial manipulation

553
Q

Occipital Lobe

A

vision, “striate cortex” - cells are striated

554
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

sound, Wernicke’s area

555
Q

Cerebellum

A

coordinates movement - motor plan info is sent to cerebellum
also receives position sense information ( from muscle stretch fibers) adn sends feedback to cerebrum and motor areas of teh cortex
topically organized

556
Q

Brainstem

A

midbrain, pons, medulla
connects brain together
HR, breathing, cross over point ( reticular formation)= acts as a filter which extends to thalamus(relay center), arousal ( alert and aware)

557
Q

Long tracts

A

collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem

2 long tracts that are important - motor (UMNs) and somatosensory

558
Q

Cranial Nerves

A

most of cranial nerves are attached to the brainstem, doing many things; 12 pairs, all sorts of functions

559
Q

Internal capsule

A

contains many important pathways, including corticospinal tract

560
Q

Basal ganglia

A

major role in motor functions

561
Q

sensory

A

thalamus- sensory functions travel through here; also high functions of brain such as cognition and emotion, part of diencephalon

562
Q

Glutamate

A

+

most common excitatory neurotransmitter; reticular activating system, required for consciousness

563
Q

GABA ( CNS)

Glycine (spinal cord)

A

most common inhibitory NTs

564
Q

Acetylcholine

A

nuclei in frontal lobe that release called basilis and septal nuclei
released for LMNs, and the ANS

565
Q

Histamine

A

hypothalamus sends it to cerebral cortex

566
Q

NE (+)

A

area in PONS called locus ceruleus that releases it

567
Q

Serotonin (-)

A

raphe nuclei in midbrain/medulla release it all over brainstem

568
Q

Dopamine (+)

A

VTA and substantia nigra projects dopamine to other parts of basal ganglia called the striatum -> Parkinson’s
-dopamine of VTA –> PFC/Cort(-) via mesocortical path for negative symptoms of schiz
-dopamine of VTA–>limbic(+) via mesolimbic pathway for positive symptoms of schiz
also dopaminergic neurons in hypothalamus that send dopamine to pituitary gland

also arcuate nucleus

increased in dopamine
decreased in schizophrenia

569
Q

Monoamines

A

catecholamines ( dopamine, NE, E)
histamine
serotonin

570
Q

Brain Structure imaging

A

CAT/CT scan and MRI

571
Q

Brain Function Imaging

A

EEG

MEG/SQUIDS

572
Q

PET scan

A

detail of structure, but combine them with CT scans and MRIs- inject glucose and see what areas are most active

573
Q

fMRI

A

blood flow usign radioactive label/oxygen

574
Q

Temperment

A

-characteristic emotional reactivity, sociability
established and persists, fairly “hardwired”; not samae as personality, broader than personality; seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment

575
Q

Personality

A

constant over a person’s lifetime

576
Q

Hertibility

A

variability of traits can be attributed to differences in genes
the percentage of variation of traits due to genes
as environment becomes more controlled, differences in behavior traits are more closely tied to heredity and heritability of that trait
h^2= 99% – if boys have same environment, any differences in IQ are 99% or 100% heritable cause environment was 100% same

h^2 = 0% if different environments and identical babies

577
Q

Innate behavioral traits

A

reflexes
orientation ( kinesis, taxis)
fixed action pattern (performed without interruption)

578
Q

Evolutionary Theory

A

role instincts play in motivation - basic instincts humans have - cry and sleep

579
Q

Drive Reduction Theory

A

drives vs needs; need is lack or deprivation that will energize the dirve, or aroused state; that drive is what will reduce the need so can maintain homeostasis

580
Q

Optimum arousal theory

A

people want to reach full arousal/alertnesse

581
Q

Cognitive Theory

A

thought processes drive behavior

582
Q

Maslow’s hierarchy of Needs

A

we need to satisfy needs in a particular order; physio, safety, love, self-esteem then self-acutalization

583
Q

Incentive theory

A

calls attention to factors outside of individuals/extrinsic motivators that drive action; lead to repeat behavior, reinforce for increased future frequency

584
Q

Theory of Planned behavior

A

we consider the implications of our intentions before we behave- intentions are based on 3 things:
attitudes towards a certain behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control

585
Q

Attitude to behavior process model

A

an event triggers our attitude and then attitude +outside knowledge together determines behavior

586
Q

Prototype Willingness Model

A

behavior is a function of 6 things: past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intentions, our willingness, and prototypes/models of behavior

587
Q

Elaboration Likelihood Model for persuasion on behavior

A

focus on why/how of persuasion

central vs peripheral

588
Q

Justification of Effort

A

people do something they don’t want to justify effort they put into it

589
Q

Cognitive Dissonance and modifications

A

2+ conflicting ideas, beliefs, values, or emotional reactions –> feeling of discomfort
4 things to reduce discomfort: DAMT
D- Deny the facts
Add-adding more cognition
Modify our cognitions-“I don’t really smoke that much”
T-Trivialize-make evidence or information less important

590
Q

Attribution

A

process of inferring causes of events/behaviors; can be internal or external
3 parts - consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus

591
Q

Suspensory ligaments

A

attached to ciliary muscle-these two things together form the ciliary body, which secretes the aqueous humor

592
Q

Macula

A

special part of retina rich in cones

593
Q

Fovea

A

in center of macula, only cones, no rods

594
Q

Choroid

A

pigmented black in humans, a netowrk of blood vessels; because black, all light is abosrbed

595
Q

sclera

A

whites of eye, thick fibrous tissue covers posterior 5/6th of eyeball; attachement point for muscles, lined with conjunctiva

596
Q

Rods and Phototransduction cascade

A

120 million
rods are 1000x more sensitive to light than cones
Black and White vision
slow recovery time ( takes a while to adjust to the dark)
found mostly in periphery
night vision, light comes in, turns off rod ( cis to trans retinal) so that it no longer secretes glutamate and so turns ON bipolar cell which turns on ganglion cell which goes itno the optic nerve and enters the brain

597
Q

Cones

A

6-7 million cones
3 types: red, green, blue
almost all cones are centered in fovea - high resolution at fovea cause no axons in way of light like restof eye (if light hits periphery it has to go through bundle of axons and some energy lost- so at fovea, hit light cones directly)
fast recovery time

598
Q

Makeup of photoreceptor

A

rhodopsin or other opsin - a multimeric protein with 7 discs which contains a small molecule called retinal (11-cis retinal) which changes conformation to trans when hit with light
then transducin which is multimeric breads from rhodopsin and alpha comes to disk and binds to phosphodiesterase (PDE) a disk protein, PDE takes cGMP and converts it to regular GMP and then Na+ channels which need cGMP begin to close and Na+ decreases as cGMP decreases – so glutmate is no longer released ( since rods hyperpolarized now) and bipolar cells are ON which then activates retinal ganglion cell

599
Q

Photopic vision

A

high levels of light - cones

600
Q

Mesopic vision

A

dusk or dawn-both rods and cones

601
Q

Scotopic

A

very low light levels - rods

602
Q

Blind Spot

A

where optic nerve connects to retina, there are no cones or rods

603
Q

Trichromatic Theory of color vision

A

Form – parvocellular pathway; good spatial poor temporal
Motion-magnocellular; high temporal,poor spatial, no color
Color-cones

604
Q

Parallel Processing

A

see all at same time; detect/focus all information ( color, motion, form) at same time

605
Q

Audition- HAS MIS

A

hammer, anvil, stirrup

malleus, incus, stapes

606
Q

Place Theory/ Basilar Tuning

A

our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane

Apex = 25 Hz low frequency
Base = 1600 Hz high frequency
607
Q

Organ of Corti

A

includes basilar membrane and tectorial membrane ( lower and upper membrane)
hair bundle on each cell, each filament called a kinocilium, and tip of each kinocilium is connected by a tip link whith is attached to gate of K channel and so movement causes K+ to follow into cell which then causes Ca to get activated and go in and generate an AP in a spiral ganglion cell which then activates the auditory nerve to primary auditory cortex

608
Q

Tonotopical Mapping

A

primary auditory cortex is also sensitive to various frequencies in different locations, so with basilar tuning, brain can distinguish diff frequencies and map them to different regions of the aud cortex

609
Q

Sensory Narrow Hearing loss aka nerve deafness

A

Cochlear implants!
sound –> mic –> speech processor –> transmitter –>receiver –> stimulator –> cochlea which converts electrical impulse into neural impulse that goes to brain

610
Q

key of audition

A

amplification - upregulation of intensity of sound as opposed to sensory adaptation

611
Q

Proprioception

A

sense of balance/position; cognitive
tiny sensors located in our muscles that goes up to spinal cord and to the brain so we’re able to tell how contracted or relaxed every muscle in our body is

612
Q

Kinaesthesia

A

talking about movement of the body; behavioral

*does not include snse of balance, while proprioception does

613
Q

Types of Fibers - 3; A-B, A-D, A-C

A

A-beta: fast, thick and covered in myelin ( less resistance, high conductance)
A-delta: smaller diameter, less myelin
C fibers: small diameter, unmyelinated ( lingering sense of pain)

614
Q

Temperature receptor

A

TrypVI receptor

pain also- capsaicin binds

615
Q

Gate Control Theory of olfaction

A

“fast blocks slow
theory of the processes of nociception - asserts that non-painful input closes the “gate” of painful input which prevents pain sensation from traveling to the CNS so stimulation by non-noxious input is able to suppress pain

616
Q

Olfaction

A

olfactory epithelium –> to olfactory sensory cells –separating the olfactory epithelium from the brain is the cribriform plate–
olfactory bulb is the brain region which is above cribriform plate, it is a bundle of nerves that sends little projections through the plate into the olfactory epithelium, which branch off= at the end of each connection are receptors which are sensitive to one type of molecule; molecule binds, will trigger APwhich will end up in olfactory bulb in a special region specific to that type of molecule called a glomerulus which then synapses on a mitral/tufted cell which projects to the brain

617
Q

Labeled-Line Theory

A

scenario where each receptor would respond to specific stimuli and is directly linked to the brain
***smell does not synapse at thalamus, so stays IPSILATERAl

618
Q

Vibrational Theory

A

vibration frequency of each molecule gives it its specific odor profile

619
Q

Steric Theory/Shape Theory

A

odor fits into receptors similar ot lock and key

620
Q

Vomeronasal System

A

within the accessory olfactory epithelium, where basal cells and apical cells are located
basal cells send axon thorugh olfactory bulb to glomerulus and then mitral/tufted cell, which eventually goes to amygdala
we have this but no accessory olfactory bulb

621
Q

Gustation tastes

A 
Bitter -GPCR
Sweet- GPCR
Salty ( NaCl) - ion channel
Sour (H+) - ion channel
Umami
622
Q

Taste Buds

A

Fungiform( anterior-most), Foliate(side), and Circumvallate ( back)
each taste bud are the 5 receptor cells that can detect each taste; each taste be detected anywhere on the tongue

623
Q

Gustation

A

each receptor has an axon which will remain separate until the brain, where all synapse on different parts of gustatory cortex

624
Q

Sleep Stages

A

BATS Drink Blood ( lower frequency as progress); 4 stages that occur in 90 minute cycles

Non-REM N1 - theta, hypnagonic, hallucinations, tetris, hypnic jerks

Non-REM N2 - theta + sleep spindles and K-complexes, deeper sleep, harder to wake, memory consolidation

Non-REM N3- Slow Wave Sleep;walking/talking happens here; declarative memory consolidation

REM-muscles are paralyzed, dreaming, memory consolidation best here, alpha, beta and dysynchronous waves, paradoxical sleep cause brain is active; waking up during REM prevents memory formation of dream

625
Q

Freud and Dreaming

A

dreams are our unconscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted; they have MEANING and help us resolve and identify conflict; little scientific support

manifest content-monster chasing you
latent content- job pushing you out
can help us resolve and identify hidden conflict

626
Q

Evolutionary Biology and Dreaming

A

threat stimulation, to prepare for real world
problem solving
no purpose- stream of consciousness

627
Q

Activation Synthesis Hypothesis of Dreaming

A

brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex
brainstem = activation; cortex =synthesis
our brain is simply trying to find meaning from random brain activity, therefore might not have meaning

628
Q

N3 crazy

A

sleep apnea

sleepwalking/sleep talkin

629
Q

Obstructive Sleep Apnea

A

obstruction to airways causes problems breathing at night; feel tired/sleep when wake up
measure with polysomnography

630
Q

Cetnral Sleep Apnea

A

presence of apneas without obstruction, problem with control system for ventilation

Cheyne-Stokes breathing- period of oscillations, then flat pattern in polysomnography

631
Q

Hypoventilation and Lungs

A

in lungs or chest wall, can occur ( high CO2, low O2) , caused by medication/obesity
chronically elevated pCO2 can lead to right-sided heart failure

632
Q

Dissociation Theory of hypnotisim

A

hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness

*hypnotism has more alpha waves

633
Q

Social influence theory of hypnotism

A

people do and report what’s expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles

634
Q

Meditation

A

training people to self-regulate their attention and awareness
increased attention control ( goal of mediation)
PFC, hippocampus, right anterior insula activation

635
Q

Deprassants

A

alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines
disrupt sleep, decrease CNS, BP, processing speech, reduced memory, judgement, concentration
prescribed for anxiety and sleep problems
Benzo- enhance brain’s response to GABA

636
Q

Opiates

A 
Heroin, Morphine, oxycodone, hydrocodone
NOT depressants
reduce pain by act at body's receptor sites for endorphins
decrease CNS, BP, vasodilation, constrict pupils
analgesic ( decrease perception of pain)
natural- opiates
synthetic-opiods
lead to euphoria so taken recreationally
637
Q

Stimulatns

A

Caffeine, Nicotine, Cocaine, Amphetamines and methamphetamines
stimulate, inc CNS, BP, alertness, asodilate, jittery, inc glucose metabolism
Caffeine- inhibits adenosine receptors which disrupts sleep
Nicotine-disrupts sleep and suppress appetite ( at high levels it can cause muscles to relax and release stress-reducing nts ( to counteract the hyper alertness)
addicting, withdrawal like insomina, irritible, anxiety
Cocaine-releases so much serotonin, dopamine ( blocks dopamine reputake) and NE that it depletes body’s supply so intense crash and very depressed when wears off; regular users can experience suspicion, convulsions, respiratory arrest and cardiac failure

Amphetamines and Methamphetamines - increase release of dopamine (prevent reuptake), euphoria, highly addictive, long-term addicts lose ability to maintain normal level of dopamine

638
Q

Hallucinogens

A

ecstasy, LSD, marijuana, mescaline, peyote, PCP, psilocyobin (mushroom)
cause altered/disordted perception, may types of hallucinations
ecstasy- mix of stimulant and hallucinogen - inc OR dec Energy, inc BP, dilate pupils, dehydration, overheat, die, inc dopamine and serotonin for euphoria, inc CNS, hallucinations and heightened sensations, social connectedness feeling
LSD-interferes with serotonin, hallucinations which are VISUAL ( not auditory)

Marijuana - mild hallucinogen, active chemical is THC which heightens sensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells
reduces inhibition like alchol, impairs motor and coordination skills, disrupts memory formation and short-term recall
THC can stay in body up to 3 months in fat cells
tolerance can increase amoutn needed for impairment, used as medicine to relieve pain and nausea

639
Q

Routes of Drug Entry

A

Oral-slowest
Inhalation- breathing or smoking
Injection- most direct, right to vein, v dangerous, most abused; injected drugs have higher addiction potential
Transdermal-skin, nicotine patch, released into bloodstream over several hours
Intramuscular- stuck in muscle, can deliver drugs to your system slowly or quickly - epipen or vaccines = fastest route

640
Q

Reward Pathway in the Brain

A

when first experience pleasure, brain releases neurotransmitter called dopamine which is produced in VTA in midbrain
VTA sends dopamine to amygdala, nucleas accumbens, PFC, and hippocampus ( nAcc, amygdala, and hippocampus are part of mesolimbic pathway)
different stimuli activate circuit to different degrees
(increase dopamine, decrease serotonin ( which signals satiety))

641
Q

Tolerance

A

you get used to a drug so you need more of it to achieve the same effect
-long term stimulation can lead brain to shut down some receptors so same amount of drugs won’t cause same high

642
Q

Withdrawal

A

if go through a period of not having the drug, you experience withdrawal symptoms; stronger with stronger drugs
once you’ve built up tolerance, need the drug to feel “normal” again
BUT with time and effort, brain can reverse back
-2 stages: acute and post-acute
acute- few weeks, physical symptoms, vary from person to person ; for alcohol only 2 days after cessation can experience this
Post-acute: fewer physical, more emotional and psychological; same for everyone

643
Q

Cross Tolerance

A

reduction in the efficacy or responsiveness to a novel drug due to a common CNS target

644
Q

Intoxication

A

behavioral and psychological effects on the person, drug-specific

645
Q

Post-Acute Withdrawal Symptoms (PAWS)

A

can last 2 years
mood swings, anxiety, irritability, low enthusiasm
roller coaster and each episode lasts about a few days

646
Q

Methadone

A

treat opiate addiction, activates opiage receptors too but acts more slowly so dampens high and eases withdrawal

647
Q

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

A

addresses both cognitive and behavioral components of addiction
recognize problematic situations and develop more positive thought patterns and coping strategies, and monitor cravings
anticipate problematic situations like partys with drugs

648
Q

Motivational Interviewing

A

working with patient to find intrinsic motivation to change

649
Q

Group meetings

A

like AA, 12 step program

650
Q

Relapse

A

when patient can slip and go back – more addictive substances make relapse more likely, why it’s hard for people to stay clean

651
Q

Covert Orienting

A

bring spotlight of attention to somethign without body or eye

652
Q

Overt Orienting

A

person turns all or part of body to alter or maximize sense of stimulus

653
Q

Attentional capture

A

when attention is attracted by motion of an object or stimulus

654
Q

Executive Attention

A

involved in goal-oriented behavior ( dopamine and VTA)

655
Q

Neglect Syndrome

A

damage to brain causes loss in capacity of spatial dimension of divided attention

656
Q

Orienting Attention

A

capacity to change focus - ACh and basal forebrain ( includes nuAcc, septal nuclei, and nucleus basilis

657
Q

Divided attention

A

switing between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously

658
Q

Directed Attention

A

allows attention to be focused sustainably on a single task

659
Q

Selective Attention

A

ability to maintain attention while being presented with masking or interfering stimuli; when you switch your attention, you’re exercising your selective attention ( like a flashlight, at any given moment illuminating one area of interest)

660
Q

Types of Cues

A

exogenous- don’t have to tell ourselves to look for them, but they are external to any goals - bright colors, loud noises

endogenous-require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it; cocktail party effect ( ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd or when someone calls your name)

661
Q

Inattentional/perceptual blindness

A

we aren’t aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field

662
Q

Change Blindness

A

we fail to notice changes in environment ( between previous and current state)

663
Q

Shadowin task

A

hearing test- left ear hear one thing, right ear another thing then told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other; all about selective attention

664
Q

Braodbent’s Early Selection Theory

A

all information in environment goes into sensory register –> selective filter –> perceptual process –> other cognitive processes
prob- if completely filter out unattended info, shouldn’t identify your own name in unidentified ear like in Cocktail party effect

665
Q

Deutch & Deutch’s Late Selection Theory

A

places broadband selective filter AFTER perceptual processes – selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness but everything is assigned meaning
sensory register –> perceptual processing –> selective filter –> other cognitive processing

666
Q

Treisman’s Attenuation theory

A

instead of complete selective filter, we have an attenuator - weakens but doesn’t eliminate input from unattended ear and then assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority
sensory register –>attenuator –> perceptual processes –> other cognitive processes

667
Q

Spotlight Model of Attention

A

selective attention- takes information from 5 sense, but doesn’t pay attention to everything
we are aware of things on an unconscious level
depends on priming

668
Q

Resource Model of Attetion

A

we have limited resources in attention

both models say something about oru ability to multitask - not very good at it

669
Q

Ability to Multitask/Divided Attention based on

A

task similarity- harder to multitask with similar tasks
Task difficulty-harder tasks require more focus ( drive in new area)
Practice- activities well practiced become automatic, or things that occur without need for attention ; whether task is automatic or controlled (harder)

670
Q

Sanctions

A

rewards/punishments for behaviors in accord with or against norms
can be formal or informal

671
Q

Folkways

A

mildest type of norm, like manners of opening door

672
Q

Mores

A

norms based on moral value/belief like not lying

673
Q

Laws

A

based on right and wrong and have formal consequences

674
Q

Taboos

A

completely wrong in any circumstance and violation results in consequences that are extreme, like cannabilism

675
Q

Deviance

A

violating a norm

676
Q

Theory of Differential Association

A

deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others that violate norms and laws- learn from observation of others

677
Q

Labeling Theory

A

a behavior is deviant if people have judged that behavior and labelled it as deviant

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