P/S Flashcards
Binocular cues
Retinal disparity
Convergence ( far away - eyes relaxed; close - eyes contract)
Monocular cues
relative size relative height interposition shading and contour motion parallax ( far away- slower; close - faster)
Visual Constancy
our perception of object doens’t change even if it looks different on retina
size constancy
shape constancy
color constancy
Inner ear muscle adjustment
loud noise - contract
Sight Adaptation
light adaptation - pupils constrict, rods and cones become desensitize
dark adaptation - pupils dilate, rods and cones start synthesizing light sensitive molecules
Just noticeable difference
threshold at which you’re able to notice a change in any sensation ; smallest difference that can be detected 50% of the time
Absolute threshold of sensation
the minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
Absolute threshold influncers
Psychological states: expectations experience motivation alterntess
Subliminal stimuli
stimuli below the absolute threshold
Semicircular canals- filled with
filled with endolymph
Semicircular canals detect
Rotational acceleration - what direction our head is moving in and the strength of rotation
-contribute to dizziness and vertigo cause endolymph doesn’t stop spinning when we do
Otolichic organs
Utricle and Saccule; Ca2+ crystals attached to hair cells
Otolithic organs detect
linear acceleration and head positioning
Signal Detection Theory Purpose
looks at how we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty ; “discerning between important stimuli and unimportant “noise”
Origins: sonar
Signal Detection Theory; d’
d’ is the strength of a signal
- hits > misses for strong signal
- misses > hits for weak signals
Signal Detection Theory; c
c is the strategy used
- 2 strategies: Conservative and Liberal
- Conservative - always say no unless 100% sure signal’s present - get misses
- Liberal - always say yes unless 100% sure signal’s absent - get false alarms
Signal Detection Theory; Signal Distribution Graph
2 lines are the noise and the signal
-d’ - the difference between the two
Ideal Signal Detection Strategy
c = 0
- minimizes misses and false alarms
Conservative signal detection strategy
c>1
Liberal signal detection strategy
c <1
Bottom up processing
stimulus influences our perception; Data driven; start with no preconceived ideas
Top down processing
background knowledge influences perception; Theory driven ; perception influenced by our expectation
Gestalt Similarity
Items similar to one another are groped together
Gestalt Pragnanz
reality is reduced to simplest form possible (olympic rings)
Gestalt Proximity
objects that are close together are grouped together ( don’t have to be same shapes)
Gelstalt Continuity
lines follow the smoothest path
Gestalt Closure
objects grouped together are seen as a whole
Hindsight Bias
the inclination, after an even has occurred, to see the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective basis for predicting it
Normalcy Bias
underestimate the possibility of a disaster occurring and its possible effects “ can’t happen to me”
Recsontructive Bias
memories are not accurate, especially times of high stress
Attrition Bias
when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study
Social Desirability Bias
how people respond to research questions; answer what they think looks good
Selection Bias/ Sample Bias
How people are chosen to participate
bias in which a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others –> creates biased sample, a non-random sample of a population
Implicit Bias
the attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual’s understanding, actions, and decisions in an unfavorable manner
Reactivity
When participants are being observe, there’s a chance that researcher is influencing what is being observed
Operationalization
the process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors
Embedded field study
when researchers pose as participants
Split-Half Method
-measure extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured
Unidirectional Relationship : cause –> effect
Reciprocal Relationship: cause effect
Reciprocity Social Rule
social rule that says we should repay in kind, what another person has provided us– this sense of future obligation associated with reciprocity makes it possible to build continuing relationships and exchanges – importance in maintenance and establishment of social norms; both individuals and society often punish free loaders, even when punishment results in costs to group so people don’t want to be seen as free loaders
Validity
whether or not the test measure what it claims to measure; several factors to establish validity:
content validity, concurrent validity, and predictive validity
Reliability
consistency, or reproducibility ; ex if administer a test on two occasions, should have similar performance
Orbitofrontal Cortex
associated with processing both positive and negative emotions; happy right hemisphere; depressed left hemisphere
**vision, taste, olfaction, and touch are all first integrated in orbitofrontal cortex
Subcallosal cingulate
Insula an basal ganglia
left superior temporal sulcus
- recognition of facial expressions associated with sadness
- disgust
- anger
Visual Agnosia
inability to recognize an image; disorder of the ventral pathway
Synthetasia
neuro phenom where stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in second sensory or cognitive pathway
Antipsychotics Treat
psychosis - schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, dementia, anxiety, OCD, an anxiety disorder
Typical Antipsychotics/ Neuroleptics
decrease positive symptoms of schizophrenia AND increase negative symptoms ( extrapyramidal motor control disability)
Atypical Antipsychotics/Second Generation Antipsychotics (SAGs)
major tranquilizers ; decrease positive symptoms of schizophrenia
Thomas Theorem
“If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences) – interpretation of a situation causes the action
Tonotopy/ Tonotopic Map
Special mapping of sound frequencies that are processed by the brain
Stroop effect
demonstration of interference in the reaction time of a task;
Interference
when participant takes longer to read a word that’s emotionally charged than neutral
LSD
serotonin neurotransmission
Nicotine
CNS stimulant by working as an acetylcholine agonist
Amphetamine
Dopamine reuptake blocke
Alcohol
CNS depressant
Mesolimbic
positive effects of schizophrenia
Mesocortical
negative effects of schizophrenia
Nigrostriatal pathway
motor planning and purposeful movement
Mesolimbic Pathway
associated with reward, motivation, and many of positive symptoms of schizophrenia
Neuropeptide Y
inhibits the feeding circuit blocking satiety; involves cholecystokinin(CCK) and distention of duodenum
Proximal Stimulus
stimulation that occurs when your sensory receptors are activated; the physical stimulus that can be measured by an observer’s sensory apparatus
Distal Stimulus
actual stimulus; objects in the real world that you end up sensing and then perceiving , which creates/results in/provides information to the proximal stimulus
Word Association
word game involving exchange of words that are associated together
Psychophysical Testing/psychophysics
quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations an perceptions they affect; scientific study between stimuli and sensation; systematically vary properties of stimulus along one or more physical dimensions
Method of Limits
Start out stimulus at very low level where can’t be detected and gradually increase until aware; can used ascending or descending
Method of Constant Stimulation
better than method of limits cause always presenting so no error of habituation and expectation; can do absolute thresholds where present stimulus randomly or ask difference thresholds (for which there has to be a constant stimulus with each of the varied levels)
Method of Adjustment/Method of average error
ask subject to control level of stimulus, instructs them to alter it until it is just barely detectable against the background noise or same level of another stimulus
Practice Effects
influences on performance that arise from practicing a task
Order Effect
influence on a particular trial that arises from its position in a sequence of trials; carry over effects
Interaural time difference
time it takes sound to reach the left vs right ear
interaural level difference
difference in sound pressure level between ears; head dampens overall sound to the far ear and reduces intensity of high frequency tones ( big ass head)
Cone of Confusion
all the point on the cone of confusion have the same interaural time difference an interaural level difference
GABA
primary inhibitor of CNS; principal role in reducing neuronal excitability throughout the NS; decreased in pts with anxiety
Dopamine
reward, attention, learning
Serotonin
mood, appetite, social behavior, and memory
hypocritin aka orexin
CNS, control sleep and arousal
Temporal Monotocity
assumes that adding pain at the end of a painful experience will worsen the retrospective evaluation of the experienced pain; adding pleasure at the end will enhance the retrospective evaluation
Posner and Snyder-automatic
defined action as automatic if it did not affect other mental activities
Gluatamate
associated with increased cortical arousal
Adenosine Monophoshpate
cells responsible for arousal are inhibited by adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
phoshpodiesterase
decompose cAMP –> AMP
-caffeine inhibits this enzyme - So increase in cAMP increases glutamate production and results in AP that are briefer and released in bursts
cAMP
ON/SIGNALING
insula
perception of insula ( warm is insulated)
Spreading and STDP
Spreading activation finds the shortest circuit and asymmetry occurs because of spike time dependent plasticity; the synapse that fires regularly is strengthened in that direction
fMRI
blood flow
McGurk effect
categorical change in auditory perception that occurs when auditory stimulus does not match the visual stimulus during speech perception
Global aphasia
result of damage to large portion of left hemisphere - unable to produce, understand, and likely can’t read or write
Wernicke’s Area
fluent/receptive aphasia
Broca’s Area
non-fluent/productive aphasia
Mediating Variable
specifies a given cause ( OG predictor variable, independent variable) that works indirectly through a more direct cause ( mediator variable) to a final effect ( outcome variable, dependent variable)
- can explain how IV and DV are related
- IV accounts for variations in DV
- IV variations account for variations in mediator
- mediator variation account for variations in DV
- **when a mediator is added to the mode, the relationship between IV and DV decreases
Moderating Variable
variable that specifies conditions under which a given predictor is related to an outcome; explains “when” a DV an IV are related; influences the strength of a relationship between two other variables
- changing the strength or direction of the relationship between IV an DV
- does NOT explain why there’s a relationship between IV an DV
Confounding Variable
hypothetical or real third variable that is often not taken into account during analysis and can adversely affect the study
Mood Regulation Monoamines
Norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine; hypothalamus uses these as it manages the endocrine system
Amygdala
fear, aggression, memory-processing, decision-making, and emotional reactions
Aversive Conditioning
behavioral conditioning where noxious stimuli are associated with undesirable or unwanted behavior that is to be modified or abolished
Beck’s Cognitive Therapy (CT)/CBT
type of psychotherapy; based on cognitive model which states that thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are all connected and that individuals can move toward overcoming difficulties and meeting their goals by identifying and changing unhelpful or inaccurate thinking, problematic behavior, and distressing emotional resonses
Opponent-Process Theory
psychological an neurological model that accounts for a wide range behaviors, including color vision
Diathesis-Stress model
psychological theory that attempts to explain behavior as a predispositional vulnerability together with stress from life experiences
Ethical Research
requires all participants voluntarily participate in the study and be able to freely withdraw at any pont
Socioeconmic Status (SES)
income (or wealth), educational attainment, and/or occupational status
Ethnographic Research
involves observing social interactions in real social settings
Ethnography
systematic study of people and cultures
Comparative Stuy/Research
cooperative research aims to make comparisons across different countries or cultures; BIG PROB- that different countries may define things differently, such as poverty
Flynn effect
observation regarding the growth of IQ from one generation to the enxt
Median’s Susceptibility
less susceptible to variation when compared to mode
Egoism
psychological egoism- motivations and instincts of an individual’s behavior are based on their own self-interest and welfare
Multiple Approach-Avoidance
describes the internal mental debate (conflict) that weighs the pros and cons of differing situations that have both goo and bad elements; visualizing yourself approaching and avoiding different aspects of situations at the same time
Approach-Approach conflicts
two options are both appealing
Avoidant-avoidant conflicts
both options are unappealing
Double Approach-avoidant conflicts
two options with both appealing and negative characteristics
Cialidini’s Six Key principles of Influence
Reciprocity Commitment and Consistency social proof authority liking scarcity
Spatial Discrimination
ability to perceive as separate points of contact the two blunt points of a compass when applied to the skin
Symbolic Interactionism
significance we given to objects, events, symbols…we interact with the world and each other to give meaning to things; focus on individual and how they behave; people are created by their society and act based on past experiences and meanings they’ve given things
- not everyone gives same meaning to same things
- subjective meaning people believe to be true; meaning is the central aspect of human behavior, we act towards things based on ascribed meaning an use language to generate meaning through interactions
Functionalism
- *all about institutions**Look at stability of a society, society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning
- society is heading towards equilibrium between institutions and social facts ( how local business must adapt to new ways to cater to customers)
- -institutions remain constant and only make minor change when stability is lost in order to return to equilibrium
- social culture that shapes society as a whole
Macrosociology
large scale perspective, big phenomena, social structures, institutions, whole civilizations/populations
- look for patterns and effects on big picture
- Functionalism
- Conflict Theory
Conflict Theory
society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities; large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved and new social order is created
- focus on different groups in society, based on ideas of Karl Marx that believed society evolve through several stages ( feudalism –> capitalism –> socialism)
- bourgeoisie vs proletariat
- class consciousness- lower class united to create this by notice their similarities
- thesis - what is; antithesis: desire to change thesis –> Thesis and antithesis cannot exist peacefully so gotta change –> Synthesis: of the two by creating a new state and thus new order
Microsociology
face to face interactions, closer look at institutions and social interactions
-symbolic interactionism
Conservative View of Social Institutions
they are natural byproducts of human nature
Progressive View of Social Institutions
they are artificial creations that need to be redesigned if not helpful
Hidden Curriculums
things we pick up in school that are not intended part of education such as socialization by peers
Ecclesia
dominant religious organization that includes most members of society
Democracy
law making, choose officials
Dictatorships
obedience to authority
communism
all property owned by community
monarchy
government embodied by single person, king/queen is figurehead
Capitalism
private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand
Socialism
motivated by what benefits society as a whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands
Division of Labor to which theory
Functionalism - everyone is required to have responsibility in society
Medicalization
when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment
-patients/doctors construct illness out of ordinary behavior
Sick Role
expectations that can take break from responsibilities BUT deviant if don’t get better or return
Illness Experience
process of being ill an how people cope with illness; being ill can change a person’s self-identity
Social Epidemiology
look at health disparities through social indicators like race, gender, an income distribution, and how social factors affect a person’s health; looks at contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations ( social determinants of disease)
Functionalism- Social Facts
ways of thinking and acting formed by society that existed before any one individual and will exist after any individual is dead; only noticed when we resist ( ex law)
Functionalism- institutions
structures that meed the needs of society like education systems, financial institutions, marriage
Functionalism’s Cell
society is dependent on structures that create it - like cell is dependent on parts that make it up
- manifest functions - business to meet a certain service
- latent functions- unintended functions, indirect effects of institutions
- Social Dysfunction- process that has undesirable consequences and may reduce the stability of society
- Small vs large societies - small societies are held together by similarities; large societies become interdependent on each other as everyone is specialized in different roles; social change threatens interdependence!!! SO institutions adapt only enough to accommodate change to maintain mutual interdep
Ludwig G’s expansion on Conflict Theory
said that society is shaped by war/conquest and cultural/ethnic conflicts lea to certain groups becoming dominant
Max Weber’s Input on Conflict Theory
Didn't see class the major/supreme stratification factor several factors moderate people's reaction to inequality -did not believe collapse of capitalism was inevitable
Social Constructionism
people actively shape their reality through social interactions so nothing’s inherent – things are social products made of the values of society that created it
- Berger + Luckman - ideas are created through historical processes that are socially defined and culturally distinct
- knowledge and world aspects are not real, only exist because we give them reality through social agreement
- *we attach different meanings to different behaviors an have preconceptions of different people ( stereotypes)
Social Construct
concept/practice everyone in society agrees to treat a certain way regardless of its inherent value, ex. money
-the self is a social construct too - our identity is created by interactions with other people, and our reactions to the other people
Weak Social Constructionism
proposes that social constructs are dependent on brute facts which are the most basic and fundamental facts like quarks in atoms, don’t rely on other facts
-institutional facts are created by social conventions and do rely on other facts, ex. money depends on the paper we have given value
Strong Social Constructionism
the whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits
-all knowledge is a social construct, no brute facts; we created the idea of quarks an everything else; no facts that just exist
George Mead
believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things; people change based on interactions with objects, events, ideas, others, and assign meaning to things to decide how to act
Herbert Blumer’s continuation of Mead
1- we act based on meaning
2-different people assign different meaning to things
3-the meaning we give something isn’t permanent, it adapt
Feminist Theory Gender Differences
socially constructed via process of soicalization
Gender oppression
women are oppressed an abused as well as unequal; institution of family is made to be beneficial to men
Structural Oppression
women’s oppression and inequality is due to capitalism, patriarchy, and racism; parallel to conflict theory
Rational Choice Theory
people not only motivated by money, but do what’s best to get more good
- assume people are rational ( weigh costs and benefits) and act in self-interest ( personal desires and goals)
- 3 assumptions ( completeness, transitivity, and independence of irrelevant alternatives)
Exchange Theory
application of rational choice theory to social interactions
- look at society as a series of interactions between individuals - self-interest and interdependence
- address decision making via cost/benefit analysis ( seek reward, avoid punishment)
- ex. sexual selection, social selection
- also the more often a reward is available, the less valuable it is ( supply/demand)
Social Selection
- differential actions of social conditions or agencies on longevity and reproductive rates of individuals an strains in population
- idea that an individual’s health can influence their social mobility and social conditions can affect reproductive rates of individuals in a population
Cohort
group of people
Age and advancement
-because of new advancements people live longer- estimated that by 2025, 1/4 of population will be >65
Dependency Ratio
age-based measurement takes people <14 and >65 who are not in labor force and compares that number to number of people who are ( 15-64)
Life Course Theory
research perspective that considers who experience from earlier in life affects outcomes later in life ; holistic perspective that calls attention to development processes and other experiences across a person’s life
– aging is a social, psychological, an biological process that begins from time you born to time you die
Age Stratification Theory
suggests age is way of regulating behavior of a generation
Activity Theory
look at how older generation looks at themselves – certain activities or jobs lost and those need to be replace so elderly can be engaged ( maintain moral well being)
Disengagement Theory
older adults an society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age ( ALSO considers elderly people who are still involved in society as not adjusting well)
-separation allows for self-reflection
Continuity Theory
people try to maintain some basic structure throughout their lives. As they age they make decisions to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging to preserve that basic strcture
Racialization
can ascribe racial identities to a minority group
Ethnicity
define by share language, religion, nationality, history, or some other cultural factor ( Race is physical)
Pluralism
encourages racial and ethnic variation
Sex, Gender, an Sexual Orientation
Biological Identity- sex born with
Gender Identity- gender they identify as ( gender is a social construction)
Gender expression- gender expressed ( gender is a social construction)
Attraction- gender to which are romantically attracted to ( orientation - which is not dependent on sex/gender of person)
Fornication-gender to which sexually attracted ( orientation)
Agender
reject gender categories
Gener Fluid
move across genders
Nonbinary
don’t identify with specific gender
XO
Turner’s MI nondisjunction - short females
XXY
Kleinfelter’s - male that’s female like
XXX, XYY
Superfemale an supermale ( Jacob’s)
Gender Roles
societal norms dictate what to do, say, how to act
Sex
biological traits
Gender
cultural meaning attached ( masculine/man, feminine/woman)
Sexuality
practices and identity which which you may align w/ sex and gener
Gender Schema
cognitions that constitute the male identity
Gender Script
organized information regarding order of actions appropriate to familiar situation
Functionalists on Cities
cities are sites of culture but also host to crime which disrupts society
Conflict Theorists on Cities
cities are sources of inequality
Suburbanization
movement away from cities
Urban Renewal
revamping old parts of cities to become better
Ghetto
specific racial, ethnic, religious minorities, concentrated due to SES inequities
Slum
heavily populated urban, informal settlement, squalor etc
Urban Decline
people move out of city centers and it can fall into despair ( unemployment/crime increase and population decrease)
Rural Rebound
people getting sick of cities and move back to rural areas
Growth Rate factors
fertility, migration, mortality
- increase: births and immigration
- decrease: death and emigration
- growth is not always a positive number, growth rates of some countries is negative
Stages of Demographic Transition
1-early expansion-high birth rates due to limited OCP and high death rate due to disease/poor nutrition; large young and small old population; overall population remains fairly stable ( skinny pyramid)
2-Late expanding-beginning of development and improvement in conditions, population rises as death rate decreases-low death rate ; rapid increase in pop( regular pyramid)
3-stationary-death and birth rates fall cause OCP and better conditions, not economically beneficial, slower expansion and longer live elderly; slow increase in pop (half oval)
4-constricting-population stabilizes, both birth rates an death rates are low; stable population ( priest circle hat)
5-speculation, Malthusian Theorem suggests negative growth rate where run out food and apocalypse ( funny priest triangle hat)
World Systems
- core
- periphery
- semiperiphery
Modernization Theory
all countries follow similar path of development to modern society
Dependency theory
reaction to modernization theory- use idea of core and periphery theories to look at inequalities and how periphery dependence on core limits ability to develop
Hyperlglobalist Perspective
new age of countries becoming interdependent and nation states themselves are less important
Skeptical Perspecitve
skeptical of hyperglobalist- thinks not global but regionalize cause third world countries are not integrate
Transformationalist Theory
doesn’t have specific cause or outcome, world will change but we don’t know how
Diffusion
ideas and practices spread from places where they are well known/apparent to places where they are new and often not observed
3 things social movements need
organization
leadership
resources
Mass Society Theory
skepticism about groups of social movements, think they can only form for people seeking refuge from main society ( only join for this reason)
Active Movements
change some aspect of society
Regressive/reactionary movements
resist change
Relative Deprivation Theory
actions of groups oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy is what social movements are about; those who join are not necessarily worst off; looks at relative deprivation
3 things needed: relative deprivation, deserving better, and belief conventional methods are useless to help
-there’s an upsurge in prejudice when people feel deprived of something they feel entitled to ( collective unrest, can lead to upsurge in prejudice and discrimination)
Resource Mobilization Theory
looks at social movements from different angle - instead of looking at people, look at factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources
-need money, political influence, media, and strong base to recruit/charismatic leader
Culture
way of life shared by group of individuals
-ways of thinking, behaving, and feeling connected to a shared knowledge of a society; allow members of the society to gain meaning from objects and ideas around them
Society
way people organize themselves
Normative Cultures
values and behaviors that are in line with larger societal norms
Popular culture
patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist in mainstream normative society
High Culture
patterns of experiences and attitudes that that exist in the highest class segments of society - tend to be associated with wealth and formality
Subculture
culture of a meso-level subcommunity that distinguishes itself from the larger dominant culture of society
- affects your life for a longer period than a microculture
- include ethnic groups
Microculture
can’t support person throughout lifespan - organizations like PhiDE
Counterculture
groups with expectations and values that strong disagree with the main values from the larger society
Culture Lag
fact that culture takes time to catchup with technological innovations, resulting in social problems
Material Culture
physical and technological aspects of our daily lives
Non-material culture
DO NOT include physical objects; ideas beliefs, values, resist change
Culture Shock
feelings of disorientation, uncertainty, an even fear when they encounter unfamiliar culture practices
Cultural Assimilation
the interpretation and fusion o f ethnic minorities into the dominant culture
Functionalists and Mass Media
role of mass media to provide entertainment and act as an agent of socialization, and enforce social norms
Conflict Theorists and Mass Media
media portrays and reflects and exacerbate divisions that exist in society
Media and Gatekeeing
process by which a small number of people and corporations control what information is presented on the media and how they move through a series of gates before they reach the public
Social Interactionism and Media
looks at media on microlevel to see how it shapes day to day behavior, social activities etc
Cultural Transmission
addresses how culture is learned, culture is passed along form generation to generation through various child-rearing practices
Absolute Poverty
doe snot consider variability; as median income rises, less people live in absolute poverty
Relative Poverty
if country’s income increases, absolute poverty line won’t change but median income level would
Social Capital
network of relationships among people who live and work in particular society
Cultural Cpaital
non-financial social assets that promote social mobility beyond economic means
Social Stratification
-society’s categorization of people into SE strata based on income, wealth, social status and power
-property of society, not individuals
reproduces form generation to generation
universal
not just quantitative, but also qualitative ( beliefs and attitudes)
Segregation
way of separating out groups of people and giving them access to a separate set of resources within the same society
“separate but equal” is rare
Environmental burden
areas with high poverty an lots of racial minorities often have few environmental benefits ( parks, green spaces), and face more health probelms
Environmental Justice
looks at the fair distribution of the environmental benefits and burdens within society across all groups
Concentration segregation
clustering of different groups
Centralizaiton segregatino
clustering and segregation in a central area
Index of issimilarity
0 = total segregation 100= perfect distribution
Political isolation
communities segregated are politically weak because their political interests don’t overlap with other communities
Linguistic Isolation
communities who are isolated may develop own language, even in same city
Spatial Mismatch
opportunities for low-income people in segregated communities may be present but farther away, and harder to access ( gap between where people live an where opportunities)
Intersectionality
consider all the different levels of discrimination
Means of Production
way we produce goods, factories and farms there's a class divide; the wealthy own things and higher large amount of workers who don't own any of the means of production
Class Consciousness
Karl Marx and Conflict Theory again- workers in working class don’t realize they’re being exploited and oppressed by this capitalistic model of working and when they develop class consciousness they have solidarity and struggle to overcome oppresssion
False Consciousness
instead of solidarity of class consciousness solidarity, they are unable to see their oppression and commonalities
Cross-Sectional Study
look at group of different people at one moment in time
Cohort Study
follow a subset of population over a lifetime ( cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic)
Retrospective Cohort
look back at events that have already taken place
Longitudinal Study
data gathered over a long period of time
Prospective Cohort
follow group over period of time and record
Case-Control Study
observational study where 2 groups that differ in outcome are identified and compared to find a causal factor ( compare those with cancer to those that don’t have it)
Clinical Trial
highly controlled INTERVENTIONAL studies
Randomized Controlled Trial
people studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test efficacy/side effects of medical interventions like drugs; gold standard for clinical trial
Validity =
Accuracy
Internal Validity-extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warranted; confounding factors often impact the internal validity of an experiment
External Validity
whether results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people
-to protect this, sample must be completely random, an all situational variables must be tightly controlled
Vehicular Control
what experimental group does without the directly desired impact
Positive Control
treatment with known cause
Negative control
group with no response expected
Reliability=
Consistency/Repeatability
-if study were done a second time, would get same results?
Self-Concept
how someone perceives/evaluates themselves aka self-awareness
Parts of Self-concept
existential self- most basic part of self-concept, sense of being distinct and separate from others; awareness that the self is constant throughout life
-categorical self-even though we are separate we exist in the world with others
Carl Rogers and Humanistic; 3 pieces of self-concept
self image = what we believe we are
self esteem= how much value we place on ourselves
ideal-self= what we aspire to be
**when ideal self and real self are similar, we have a positive self concept; if not, we have incongruity
Social Identity Theory
2 parts: personal identity and social identity
- we categorize ourselves then identify with a group and then compare ourself to that group to establish our and maintain our self-esteem
- categorize, identify and compare
Self-esteem
respect and regard one has for onself
self-efficacy
belief in one’s ability to succeed in a particular situation
Person with Strong Self-efficacy
RISE: recover quickly, have strong interest, strong sense of commitment, and enjoy challenging tasks
Person with Weak Self-efficacy
FALL: focus on personal failures, avoid challenging tasks, quickly lose confidence in personal abilities, and lack the ability to handle difficult tasks and situations
Mastery of Experinece
strengthens self-efficacy
Social Modeling
seeing people like us complete the same task can strengthen self-efficacy
Social Persuasion
when someone says something positive about you, helps overcome self-doubt
Freud Psychosexual Development
*childhood
*5 stages
*fixation
~Old Age Parrots Love Grapes
-fixation is due to concept of libido- natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind, and when fixated can have lifelong effect well into adulthood; libido is centered at different parts of body at different times of development
Oral- 0-1 years-trust/comfort – dependency/aggression
Anal-1-3-control/independence-anal-retentive or messy
Phallic-3-6-Oedipus/electra-sexual dysfunction
Latent-6-12-social skills/sublimation
Genital-12+-sexual maturity-mentally healthy
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
*lifetime, crisis at each stage
*8 stages
*conflict and resolution
Trust/Mistrust-0-1
Autonomy/Shame and doubt-1-3
Initiative/Guilt-3-6
Industry/Inferiority-6-12
Identity/Role Confusion-12-20
Intimacy/Isolation-20-40
Generativity/stagnation-40-65
Integrity/Despair-65+
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Development
*hands-on, active development
*knowledgable other
-social interactions
Elementary Motor Functions- MAPS ( memory, attention, perception, and sensation)
Higher Mental Functions with help of knowledgeable other
*zone of proximal development
*language means by which transmit information, powerful tool of intellectual adaptation
Kohlberg’s Moral Development
*moral reasoning
*3 stages with 2 levels each
*Heinz and Wife dying, nee drugs
1-Precoventional (pre-adolescent)
~Obedience vs punishment ( avoid punishment)
~Individualism and Exchange(gain reward)
2-Conventional
~Social Norms/conformity/acceptance
~Law and order
3-Post-conventional
~social contract ( Do right)
~Universal ethical principle (Golden Rule)
Reference Groups
group to which people refer in evaluating themselves
Cooley
everyone a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity
Mead
only some people can influence someone’s identity and only in certain periods of life
Mead’s Social Behaviorism
Preparatory stage- imitation
Play stage- more aware of social relationships, pretend play
Game stage- start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of “generalized other”, realize people can take on multiple roles
Mead’s Me
what we learn through interaction with others; conform and social and Me not douche
Mead’s I
unsocialized, non-conforming, spontaneous
-response to the Me/attitudes of others
Mead’s Self
actual self is balance of I and Me
Cooley’s Looking Glass Self
socialization shapes our self-image;
-“looking glass self” - person’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others
3 steps
-how do I appear to others
-what do others think of me
3-revise how we think about ourselves based on what we IMAGINE other think
Internal/Dispositional Attirbution
about them
Fundamental attribution error: assign too much weight to internal disp rather than external
External/Situational Attribution
environment
Optimism Bias
believe bad things happen to others and not to us
Attribution and Covariation Model
call it based on:
consistency ( time) - high means disp
distinctiveness (situation)- high means situ
consensus (other people)- high means situ
Actor-Observer Bias
we are victims of our circumstance but others are willful actors
Ego-preservation
more likely to blame things on external factors for us
Cognitive Bias
tendency o think in certain ways; often cause deviations from standard of rationality or good judgement
Inividualistic Cultures
attribute success to internal and failure to external
Collectivist Cultures
attribute success as external and failure to internal
Self-serving bias
preserve our self-esteem by attributing success to internal and failures to extrenal
Stereotyping
attribute a certain though/cognition to a group of individuals, and overgeneralize
Self-fulfilling Prophecy
stereotypes can lead to behaviors that affirm the original stereotypes; vicious cycle
Cognition
Affect
Behavior
Stereotype
Prejudice
Discrimination
Authoritarian Personality
obey superiors, no one else oppressive inflexible in thinking protect ego avoid confrontation
Frustration Aggression Hypothesis
getting frustrated can lead to prejudice and bottling it up can lead to aggression
Stigma
extreme disapproval of a person based on some behavior or quality of that person; typically a culture will collectively stigmatize a person based on overt physical/deviant characteristics
Self-Stigma
individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they have had and feel rejected by society and then isolate selves
First Impressions
long, strong, and built upon; primacy bias - first impression more important than subsequent; recency bias- most recent actions are very important too
Halo Effect
tendency of people to judge inherently good/bad natures; rather than looking at individual characteristics; also a reverse-halo effect
Physical Attractiveness Stereotype
believe attractive people have more positive personality traits
Just World Hypothesis
noble actions performed by an individual are rewarded, while evil acts are punished
“you got what was coming to you”
-people think like this to rationalize their goo fortune or misfortune
Xenocentrism
judge another culture as SUPERIOR to one’s own culture
cultural imperialism
deliberate imposition of one’s own cultural values on another culture
In Group
one we are connected with - stronger interactions an more influential
Group Favoritism
we favor people in our own group but those in other groups are netural
Out Group Derogation
we are super friendly to our own group and discriminate toward other group
Geographical Proximity
most powerful indicator of friendships and relationships ; mere exposure effect applies to everything from music to numbers to objects to love
Perceived Similarity and Couples
couples stay together due to perceived similarity- cause over time their interests and beliefs become more aligned
we also like people like ourselves both physically and all else
Projection Bias
we assume others have the same beliefs we do
False consensusus
we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not
Sexual Dimorphism
difference between male an female traits
Secure Attachment
explore with mom ; upset without mom; happy upon return
Insecure Attachment
don’t explore with mom; upset without mom; still sad upon return OR ignore ignore, ignore
Parenting Styles
can be authoritarian, permissive, or authoritative (best)
Aggression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy
Biological Aggression
amygdala and frontal lobe; testosterone from testes
Psychological Aggression
Frustration-Aggression principle - idea that frustration creates anger which can spark aggression; high temperatures can lead to frustration
Socio-cultural Aggression
people act more aggressively in groups; deindividuation and social scripts
Social Scripts
when people are in new situations they rely on social scripts or instructions provided by society on how to act
Kin Selection
people act more altruistically to close kin than distant/non-kin
Reciprocal Altruism
people are more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future
Cost Signaling
signals to others that person who’s giving has resources and is open to cooperation; people have increased trust in those they know have helped other sin the past
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy; empathy has an early developmental trajectory
Social Support Types
Emotional- love, trust, caring ( listening and empathizing)
Esteem- expressions of confidence/encouragement
Informational Support- sharing information with us or giving us advice
Tangible support- financial support, goods, services
Companionship support- gives someone sense of social belonging
Status
person’s social position in society
Role Strain
when you can’t carry out all the obligations of ONE status, tension within that one status
Role Conflict
conflict between TWO different statuses, unlike role strain
Primary Groups
Core social group-closest members of the group to you
Secondary Groups
formal an business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal, usually short-term and only see them sometimes
Dramaturgical Front Stage
when people are in a social setting
Dramaturgical Back Stage
more private area of our lives, when act is over and you can be yourself; where you work on impression management
Impression Management
our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage to be viewed in a positive way; there are multiple front stages and we play a different role every time
Unintentional Discrimination
how policies can discriminate unintentionally
Side-effect discrimination- how one institution/sector can influence another negatively
Past-In Present discrimination-how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed can have consequences for people in the present
Prejudice
attitudes that prejudge a group, usually negative and not based on facts; make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences
Discrimination
differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities
Utilitarian Organizations
institutions designed for a specific purpose, and try to achieve maximum efficiency– members are paid/rewarded for their efforts
Normative Organizations
members come together through shared goals
Coercive Organizations
members on’t have choice about membership
Bureaucratization
process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy
Iron Rule of Oligarchy
even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they’re governed by select few
McDonaldization
policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate organizations in society– principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control
Max Weber and Organizations
Ideal Bureaucracy
1-division of labor ( can lead to trained incapacity wherein workers are so specialized they lose touch of overall picture)
2-hierarchy or organization
3-written rules and regulations
4-impersonality
5-employment based on technical qualifications ( can lead to Peter Principle where every employee keeps getting promoted until reach level of incometence
Animal Autocommunicaiton
can given information to themselves; like bats with echolocation
Anthromorphism
attributing human characteristics to non-human animals
Foraging and Cost-Benefit Analysis
can be solitary foraging or group foraging ( larger prey and can benefit everyone but can lead to competition when food is scarce)
Random Mating
all equally likely to mate with each other, not influenced by environ, heredity, or social limitation ( Hardy Weinberg!)
Assortative Mating
non-random mating where individuals with certain personalities tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency ( inbreeding problem)
Dissortative Mating ( Non-assortative mating)
opposite where individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than random mating
Inclusive Fitness
NUMBER OF OFFSPRING AN ANIMAL HAS, how they support them, and how offspring support each other —on large scale: evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves
Evolutionary Game Theory
those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations; reproduction and environment are central
- predicts the availability of resources and social behavior; strategy of each individual depends on strategy exhibited by other players
- *diff from game theory cause game theory involves INTENTION while evolutionary game theory may not conscious intention on part of players
Nonassociative Learning
when organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus with no reward or punishment
habituation
person tunes out the stimulus
Dishabituation
when previously habituated stimulus no longer is - stimulus no longer habituated
Sensitization
increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus
Associative learning
when one event is connected to another ( classical and operant conditioning)
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov-produced when the neutral stimulus is presented shortly before the same response as the unconditioned stimulus
no change in behavior
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner - focuses on the relationship between behavior and consequences and how those in turn influence the behavior
Primary Reinforcers
innately satisfying/desirable, like foo
Secondary Reinforcers
those learned to be reinforcers, such as previously neutral stimuli ( dolphin and whistle)
Token economy
system of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior, reinforcers are “tokens” that can be exchanged for other reinforcers ( prizes)
Shaping
emphasize learning through practice
successively reinforce behaviors that approximate the target behavior
Taxis
purposeful movement, like bugs toward light
Kinesis
rats randomly scurrying in different directions with no purpose
Insight learning
solve a problem using past skills, the “aha” movement is insight learning
Latent Learning
learned behavior is not expressed until required
Aversive Control/Learning
behavior is motivated by threat of something unpleasant; taste aversion - no longer eat something due to unpleasant experience
Adaptive Associations
those who have a biological advantage are learned faster than learning with no biological value
Escape Learning
escape an unpleasant stimulus, like fire - there’s an element of surprise cause you’re thrown into the condition and need way out to terminate an ongoing stimulus; response is conditioned to escape in response to stimuli and then stimuli goes away
Avoidance
avoid fire before it arrives–there’s a signal before aversive situation; results in continue avoidance cause reinforced by removal of pain/undesireable stimuli
Persuasion components and Elaboration Likelihood Model
method for attitude/behavior change; elaboration likelihood model explains how people influenced by content of speech vs more superficial features
- Message characteristics- message itself, clarity, how well thought out
- Source Characteristics- their level of expertise, trustworthy, credibility, physical environment
- Target characteristics- characteristics of listener, such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence
2 Paths of Information Processing
Central- people are persuaded by the content of argument - can lead to deep processing and results in a lasting attitude change
Peripheral- don’t care, little motivation/interest- leads to shallow processing of information and creates a temporary attitude change
Reciprocal Determinism
interaction between a persons’s behaviors, personal factors ( motivation), and environment
- Social-cognitive theory
- Bandura who worked on observational learning
Social Cognitive Theory
views behaviors as being influenced by people’s actions and cognitions in their social context; talking about interactions between individual and situation they’re in
Learned Helplessness
when tone is sounded dogs receive electric shock, but could press button to stop the shock but don’t because were in previous situation where had no control– therefore uncontrollable bad events can lead to perceived lack of control, which leads to general helpless behavior
Tyranny of Choice
too many choices can negatively impact our cognition and behavior - one result is information overload is a result which can lead to decision paralysis and increased regret over choice made
Desires and Temptation
humans have desires which aren’t necessarily bad but they can become a temptation ( when they conflict with our long-term values and goals) – self-control is focusing on long term goals while putting off short-term temptations ; marshmallow test and kids
Ego Depletion
idea that self-control is a limited resource – if you use a lot of it, can get used up and less to use in future
self control requires a lot of energy and focus
Freud and Personality - Psychoanalytic Theory
personality is shaped by a person’s unconscious thoughts, feelings, and past memories ( particularly in childhood)
Libido
-natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind
motivation for survival, growth, pleasure, etc.
Eros Drive
life drive
Death Instinct/Thanatos rive
drives aggressive behavior fueled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others
Pathological Defense Mechanisms
denial- pretend something hasn’t happened
Immature Defense Mechanisms
Projection - throw attributes to someone else ( no, they’re mean)
–> Projective identification- person targeted with projection can start believing, feeling, having those things attributed to them
Passive Aggression- aggressively do something, don’t do, or do slowly
Neurotic Defense Mechanisms ( 3RsID)
Intellectualization- take intellectual aspects and detach from emotional aspect rationalization regression repression displacement reaction formation
3RsID - Rationalization
make self believe you were not at fault; false logic or false reasoning, avoid blame
Regression
act like baby, tantrum, whine
Repression
push thoughts into unconscious, unconsciously
Displacement
angry at someone but displace on someone else ( a safer target)
Reaction Formation
unconscious feeling- make person do opposite ( hate dogs go volunteer at animal shelter) –say or do exact opposite of what actually want/feel
Mature Defense Mechanisms (HASS)
humor- jokes/humor to alleviate feelings in socially acceptable way
altruism
sublimation- channel negative to positive energy; transform unwanted impulses into something less harmful
suppression- consciously push thoughts to unconscious but can access at later time
Id
ucnonscious, develops after birth and demands immediate gratification
pleasure principle- immediate pleasure, avoid pain, immature
Ego
part of conscious and unconscious; involved in our perceptions, thoughts and judgements, seeks long-term gratification
Superego
develops around age 4; our moral conscience; also part of conscious and unconscious
“Reality Principle”- play role in real world
-internalization of cultural idea and parental sanctions, “morals”, tries to replace reality with morality
Fixation
when libido overgratified or not gratified, fixation occurs at a certain stage
Carl Rogers and Humanistic Theory
*free will
*humans are inherently good
*most basic motive of all people is self-actualization - so self-motivated to improve
focus on conscious
-**Maslow - hierarchy of needs ( physio –> safety -> love –> self-esteem –> self-actualization)
*growth is nurtured when individual is genuine and through acceptance from others
Self-concept – achieved when we bring genuiness and acceptance together to achieve growth-promoting climate **importance of congruency between self-concept and our actions to be fulfilled
Cloninger Personality
brain reward systems - motivation, punishement, reward
Gray
behavioral inhibition/activation and also reward/punishment
Eysenck’s PEN
reticular formation - 3 dimensions of personality but different degrees – PEN
P- psychoticism ( degree to which reality is isorted)
Extroversion
Neuroticism
Social Potency Trait
degree to which person assumes leadership roles in social situations–common in twins reared separately
Traditionlism
tendency to follow authority
Temperament
innate disposition, our mood/activity level, consistent throughout life
Behaviorist Theory
*environment determines behavior
personality is result of learned behavior patterns based on person’s environment; it’s deterministic - begin with blank slate and environment completely determines behavior/personalities
*focus on observable and measurable behavior
Skinner-strict behaviorist
Pavlov- classical conditioning
Personality Traits/Trait Thoery
*stable characteristic –> consistent behavior
stable predisposition towards a certain behavior; straightforward way to describe personality; puts it in patterns of behavior
Surface Traits
evident in person’s behavior
Source Traits
factors underlying human personality ( fewer and more abstract)
Gordon Allport
4500 different descriptive; 3 categories
Cardinal Traits- characteristics that direct most of person’s activities- dominant traits, influence all our behaviors, including secondary and central traits
central Traits- honesty, sociability, shyness; less dominant than cardinal
Secondary trait- love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat, more preferences/attitudes
16 Cattell
16 personality facto questionaire
Myerrs Briggs
off Carl Jung - 4 letters –> 16 personality types
5 Factor Model -Big 5- OCEAN
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
Cattel, Eysenk an Big 5 USED
Factor analysis - statistical method that categorizes and determines major categories of traits
Social Cognitive Theory vs Behaviorism
unlike behaviorism where environment controls us entirely, cognition is also important
SCT- Bandura and Bobo Doll experiment
Learning-performing distinction
Motivation for Learning
AM I Motivated
Attention, Memory, Imitation, Motivation
Distress
negative stress that builds and bad
Eustress
Positive stress that’s stressful but challenging/motivating
Neustress
neutral stress, not directly actively affecting like natural disaster across world
Mania
speak fast, sleep little, bad decisions due to impaired judgement
Delusions
fixed false beliefs
Hallucinaitons
sensory perceptions without disorganized thinking
Schizophrenia
cognitive ( attention, organization, planning abilities)
negative (blunted emotions)
Positive ( hallucinations, delusions)
decreased cerebral cortex size
INCREASED DOPAMINE
meso(VTA in mibrain)corticolimbic pathway
*diagnose wieth clinical interview to look at behavior
Prodrome
period of time before schizophrenia symptoms actually present - see deterioration of person’s behavior and functioning
Depression
SIG E. CAPS
frontal lobe and limbic problems
raphe nuclei of brainstem - dec serotonin
locus coreulus ( axons to cerebrum) - dec NE
VTA-dopamine
*monoamines
*5HTTLPR
Monoamines
E, NE, dopamine, serotonin, and melatonin
Catecholamines
dopamine, NE, E
Alzheimer’s Disease
**dec ACh
lose basic activities of daily living (ADL)
atrophy- cerebrum
loss neurons, plaques ( amyloid - beta(
neurofibrillary tangles - clumps of protein tau
*nucleus basalis of cerebrum- Ach
*ApoE4
Parkinson’s Disease
dec dopamine
slow, stooped, shuffle, tremor
loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra ( which rojects to area called striatum, and loss of DA neurons causes most of neural abnormalities
Lewy bodies in DA neurons which contain protein alpha synclein
Lewy Body disease
*leading candidate for treatment with stem cells
Informative Social Influence
**defer cause IDK
look to group for guidance when you don’t know what to do, and ask what to do
Normative Social Influence
***acceptance/avoid social rejection
even if you know what’s right, do what group does to avoid social rejection; may internally believe something differently
*Solomon Asch and Gestalt- both normative, informative, and perceptual error
Anomie
breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community; uncertainty so weakend sense of morality criteria for behavior
- can result in social groups disbanding, alienation
- compliance, identification, internalization
Demand characteristics
how participants change behavior to match expectations of experimenter
**Milgram Yale Shock experiments
Milgram’s Yale Shock exps
just world phenomenon
passing responsibility of actions to others
self-serving bias ( we could never commit acts like this)most of us would
fundamental attribution error
Zimbardo Stanford Prison study
situational attribution deindividuation cognitive dissonance internalization demand characteristics selection bias tho
Factors that Influence Conformity
Group Size, unanimity, group status, group cohesion, observed behavior, public response, prior commitment, feelings of insecurity
Factors that Influence Obeying
closeness to authority physical proximity legitimacy of authority institutional authority victim distance depersonalization role models for definace
Bystander Effect
factor of diffusion of responsibility theory and deindividuation
Hawthorne Effect/Observer Effect
modify or improve behavior in response to being observed/awareness to being observed
Anterior Chamber of Eye
space filled with aqueous humor, which provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball and allows nutrients and minerals to supply cells of cornea and iris
Conjunctiva
first layer light hits
Pupil
hole made by iris ( colored muscle that constricts and relaxes to change size of pupil)
lot of light- smaller
little light- bigger
Lens
bends light so it goes to back of eyeball
Infromation Processing Model
proposes our brains are similar to computers- we get input from environment, process it, and output decisions
- assumes a serial processing except computers do serial processing while our brain does parallel processing
- bottom-up
- limited storage capacity and limited attention capacity
Sensory Memory/Sensory Register
temporary register of all senses you’re taking in
iconic - half sec
echoic - 3-4 secs
Sensory Memory Tests
partial report technique or whole report technique
Working memory (7 +/- 2)
what you’re thinking at the moment; magic number 7 - you can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of information at a time
-WM explains serial position effect
Processing Order
central executive coordinates visuo-spatial and phonological loop information –> stored episodic buffer –> long term memory (unlimited)
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
visual and spatial information processed here
Phonological loop
verbal information processes here, capacity of about 2 seconds
Dual Coding Hypothesis
it’s easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone
Method of loci
imagine moving through a familiar place in each place leaving a visual representation of topic to be remembered
Long-term Memory
capacity is unlimited; 2 main categories - explicit ( declarative), and implicit ( non-declarative)
Explicit/Declarative
explicit are facts/events you can clearly describe
Semantic Memory- form of explicit memory
facts; or has to do with words- anytime you take vocabulary test or state capitals, remembering simple facts
Episodic Memory-form of explicit memory
event-related memories
Implicit/Non-declarative/Procedural memory
implicit memories are things you may not articulate, such as riding a bicycle
- all memories formed by conditioning are implicit, unconscious, habits
- habits/implicit memory is stored int eh ganglia
Priming-form of implicit memory
previous experiences influence current interpretation of an event; less additional activation is needed
*prior activation of nodes/associations often without our awareness
Negative Priming
previous exposure to a stimulus/event unfavorably influences new one
Encoding
transferring sensory information into memory ( from temporary store in working memory to permanent store in long-term memory
Retrieval Cues
Priming
context ( environment you encode and take test in)
State-dependent ( your state at moment)
Cued Recall
give “pl” for planet
False information
inaccurate recollections of an event
Schema
mental blueprint containing common aspects of world, often used instead fo reality
Misleading information
car crash video, language used can influence memory and cognition
Source monitoring/source amnesia
when people recall information they often forget the information’s source
knowledge but can’t recollect from where, when, how
Flashbulb memories
highly vivid memories, often emotional, BUT still susceptible to reconstruction cause a memory is just neural connections; connections between neurons strengthen or weaken ( long term potentiation )
Lont term potentiation
with repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neuron converts into greater post-synaptic neuron, stronger synapse, and when it lasts longer called long term potentiation – learning!!
Decay
when we don’t encode something well, or don’t retrieve it for a while, we can’t at all anymore
Ebbinghaus - initial rate of decay is fast but then levels out after about 30 days
Relearning
just because you can’t retrieve something doesn’t mean it’s completely gone– take less time to learn things second time around cause of savings
Interference
Retroactive- new learning impairs old information
Proactive-something you learned in past impairs learning in future
Decline in Aging
RED
Recall
Episodic/explicit processing
Divided Attention
Stable or Improved in Aging
Stable
Recognition
implicit/procedural
Improve
Semantic
Emotional reasoning
Crystallized IQ - knowledge and experience
Dementia
forgetting to point of interfering with normal life- results form exceissive damage to rbain tissue
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine - due to malnutrition, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism
thiamine converts carbohydrates into glucose cells need for energy
poor balance, abnormal eye movements, confusion, and memory loss
*Precursor Wernicke’s encephalopathy-if diagnosed, can prevent KS
**main symptom is severe memory loss ( antero and retro amnesia) accompanied by confabulation ( patients make up stories to fill in memories)
-treatment is healthy diet, abstain from alcohol, take vitamins
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Properational Concrete operational Formal operational *disequilibrium drives our learning process cause we accomodate to restore equilibrium
Sensorimotor stage
0-2
object permanence developed during this stage
stranger anxiety
Preoperational Stage
2-7 egocentric ( no empathy or inability to understand perspective of others) pretend play imagine no conservation
Concentrate Operational
7-11 conservation learned begin to learn empathy math skills, reasoning, logic conversion BUT NO HYPOTHETICAL reasoning
Formal Operational Stage
12+
reason abstract/hypotheticalconsequences and reason consequences, where sophisticated moral reasoning begins to take place
Schemas, Assimilation, Accomodation
we can accommodate by adjusting previously existing schema or adding new ones
assimilation- “same schema”
accommodate- “change and create”
Problem Solving Methods
Trial and Error
Algorithm
Heuristics- mental shortcut to find solution quicker than other — means-ends analysis and working backwards
Intuition- relying on instinct, high chance of error
Fixation
getting stuck on a wrong appraoch
Insight and incubation
insight is aha moment which can be obtained after let problem incubate for some time
Type I error
false positive
Type II error
false negative
heuristic
shortcuts to make a decision, rule of thumb
availability- based on examples that you’ve experienced
representativeness- based on a prototype you’ve constructed in head
Conjugation Fallacy
belief that co-occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one ( feminist and bank teller vs just bank teller)e
Anchoring and Adjustment heuristic
start at set point/anchor and adjust based on new information
Overconfidence
going into something without having a lot of information - like a test
Belief Perseverance
ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts; during elections ignore facts about someone you like
Confirmation Bias
seek out only confirming facts, information that fits your idea
Framing Effects
how you present the decision - number of people to save vs let die
Hierarchical Semantic Network Model
initially thought higher order to lower order categories; animal –> bird –> ostrich
Modified Semantic Network Model
not hierarchical but based on the associations and evidence that an individual develops based on experience and knowledge
when you activate one concept, pulling related concepts with it based on strength of connection
stronger nodal links means decrease processing time
Spearman’s 1 g
*1 tip in Spear
g factor –general intelligence
evidence from fact that people who score well on one test tend to score well on other types of testes as well, using a consistent ability of g factor
Sternberg’s Triachic Theory of 3
Analytical/Academic ( IQ scores; 100 w/ deviation = 15)
Creative/generative ( generate novel ideas and adapt)
Practical ( solve ill-defined problems)
Emotional Intelligence
perceived, understand and manage emotions in interactiosn with others
Fluid intelligence
ability to reason quickly and abstractly; dec with age
Crystallized intelligence
accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; inc with age
Fixed mindset
intelligence is bioloigcally set and unchanging
Growth mindset
intelligence is changeable if you learn more; those with a growth mindset accomplish more ( more motivated)
Gardner’s 8 intelligences
differentiates into different modalities, that are independent of each other
Thurnston’s 7 factor Theory
word fluence verbal spacial perceptual speed numerical inductive memory similar to spearman cause though if do well on one, will do well on others
Galton’s idea of hereditary genius
believed that human ability is hereditary
Binet’s idea of mental age
how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age
Guilford’ Convergent Intelligence
convergent intelligence- IQ test related to intelligence
Behaviorists on Language and Cognition
believe language is just conditioned behavior- we learned it
Nativists on Language and Cognition
rationalist, language must be innate
Theory of universal Grammar
all languages are alike in structural foundation and cause common rules and patterns; we are able to speak without fomral instruction
Universalism on Language
thought determines language completely - thought dictates language and language is created from a set of universal semantic distinctions and constructions which shape human language
Piaget on Language
he believed once children were able to think in a certain way, they then developed language to describe those thoughts so cognition influences language development
Vygotsky on Language
language and cognition are both independent but converge through development; eventually learn to use them at the same time
Weak Linguistic Determinism aka Linguistic Relativisim
language influences thought/cognition “girl pushes boy”
Strong Linguistic Determinism aka Sapir-Whorfian Hypothesis
language determines cognition/thought ( Hopi have no grammatical tense)
*people understand their world through language, and language in turn shapes how we experience hte world
Language Parts
Lexicon- set of vocabulary items
Lexical access- identify a word and connect to its meaning which has been store din long term
Phonology- phonetic component “ sound” - 40 in english
morphology- structure of words, grammatical system
Semantics- meaning associated with word
Syntax- how words put together in sentences
Pragmatics- dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge, cadence, inflection
Neural Networking theory
innate language mechanism, that can be activated by experience
Nativist (innatist)
Noam Chomsky
children are born with ability to learn language; each society has its own language; language is innate
Chomsky’s language acquisition device (LAD later called universal grammar - all languages shared some basic elements like nouns, verb) that allowed them to learn language
-along with idea there’s a critical period from birth to 9 years old, the period of time a child is most able to learn a language
*LAD only operates during critical period; once start using LAD it specialized to your language and unable to detect sound and grammar from other lanague
Baby word production
9-12 months: babble 12-18 months: 1 word/month 18-20 months: explosion of language and combos 2-3: longer sentences, 3 words + 5 yrs: rules of lanageu are mastered
Learning Theory of language/ Behaviorist
BF Skinner
children aren’t born with anything, only acquire language through reinforcement; learn to say mama cause every time say that, mother reinforces behavior ( doesn’t explain words produced that have not been heard before)
Skinner- behaviorist that models are trained in lanaguge by operant conditioning
Social Interactionist Approach of language
Vygotsky
believe biological and social factors have to interact for children to learn language
children’s desire to communicate with adults makes them learn language
Global Aphasia
when both Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas are damaged -
Arcuate fasiculus
2 areas connected by bundle of nerves- when damaged, conduction aphasia - ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted
Stroke to left hemisphere
can’t speak, over time with therapy some can retain other speech-related parts of brain by creating new connections - neural plasticity
Corpus callosum
if severed have a split-brain patient – surgery effects language since right side of brain can’t communicate with the left language side; have to put things in right visual field in order to process them since would synapse in left hemisphere ( cause contralateral)
Limbic system
HAT Hippo
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
destroy amygdala bilateral–> mellow, hyperorality, hypersexuality, and disinhibited behavior, impulsive, ignore social behaviors
Hippocampus and destruction
converts short-term memories to long-term ; if destroy, have old memories intact, just can’t make new ones
left hemisphere
positive emotions
language
right hemisphere
negative emotions
emotional tone
Prefrontal Cortex and Phineas Gage
higher-order functions, everything that distinguishes humans, executive control, solve problems, make decisions, how act in social situations
6 Universal Emotions
Stacey F. DASH - sadness, fear, disgust, anger, surprise, happiness
Schacter Singer/ 2 factor theory
E –> physio and cog –> emotion –> action
Lazarus theory
emotion depends on how the situation is appraised/labeled/interpreted; and how we label is based on cultural/individual differences
E–>appraisal–>physio and emotion
Yerkes-Dodson Law
bells shaped curve- people perform best when they are moderately aroused
Moods
moods typically last longer than emotions
Appraisal Theory of Stress
Primary Appraisal= assess stress as positive/benign, stressful/negative, or irrelevant
Secondary Appraisal=material preparedness to deal with stressor-harm, threat, challenge (how to overcome it)
Categories of Stressors
significant life changes
catastrophic events
daily hassles
ambient stressor ( pollution)
Stress and Endocrine Response
adrenal glands release E and NE ( catecholamines) and cortisol
Tend and befriend and Stress
sometimes response to have support systems - Oxytocin is important for this ( peer bonding, strongly linked to estrogen)
General Adaptation Syndrome
1-alarm phase ( dip from normal health)
2-resistance ( flee, huddle, cortisol)
3-exhaustion -if resistance isn’t followed by recovery, our tissues become damaged and we become susceptible to illness
Physical Effects of Stress
CAD, hypertension, vascular disease due to high BP ( blood vessels become distended, build up more muscle and become more rigid and has spots that attract fatse)
Metabolism- body increases cortisol and glucagon which can lead to DM; cortisol also tells body to use fats as soruce of energy
Reproduction-infertility and impotence cause E and P, LH, FSH, and Testosterone inhibited
Immune Function- causes inflammation, acute stress can lead to overuse of immune system and attack own bodyor suppressed
Hippocampus and Frontal Cortex and Stress
have glucocorticoid receptors for cortisol, so affects memory and learning and executive function/behavior
Anhedonia
inability to experience pleasure, so perceive more stress
Depression and Serotonin
anterior cingulate of frontal cortex stops making and responding to serotonin
Anxiety and Amygdala
centered here cause anxiety has to do with our fears and phobias
Coping with stress
Perceived control
optimism
social support
Managing Stress
Exercise
Medication
religious beliefs/faith
cognitive flexibility
Low effort/low-effect coping
minority students learn to put in only minimal effort as they believe they are being discriminated against by the dominant culture
Brainstem
midbrain, pons, medulla
PNS nerves
12 pairs cranial nerves; 31 pairs spinal nerves
Mechanoreceptors
large diameter axons, with thick myelin sheath so transmit fast
Nociceptors and thermoreceptors
small diameter, less myelination, slower; end in uncovered terminals unlike mechano
Procession of Feeling
Touch, Pressure, Stretch, Vibration
Man Crush Monday- RePost
Meissner’s corpuscle, Merkel, Ruffini, Pacinian
Receptor layers
MCM: papillary dermis (stratum basale), R: reticular dermis; P=subcutaneous layer ( hypodermis)
Receptor Sensitivity
Ends MCP- require changing touch to fire
Middle MR- need sustained touch to fire
hair follicle receptor
reticular dermis, changing, hair movement/light touch
Tendon
Muscle to Bone
Ligament
LB^2 - bone to bone
Fasciae
FM^2 - muscle to muscle
Spinal Cord Myelination
Sprite outside
Brain Myelination
grey, outside! use your brain!
Upper Motor Neuron Tracts
corticospinal tract ( to spine) and corticobulbar tract ( to brainstem)
Frontal Lobe
motor, PFC, Broca’s area
Parietal Lobe
somatosensory cortex, spatial manipulation
Occipital Lobe
vision, “striate cortex” - cells are striated
Temporal Lobe
sound, Wernicke’s area
Cerebellum
coordinates movement - motor plan info is sent to cerebellum
also receives position sense information ( from muscle stretch fibers) adn sends feedback to cerebrum and motor areas of teh cortex
topically organized
Brainstem
midbrain, pons, medulla
connects brain together
HR, breathing, cross over point ( reticular formation)= acts as a filter which extends to thalamus(relay center), arousal ( alert and aware)
Long tracts
collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem
2 long tracts that are important - motor (UMNs) and somatosensory
Cranial Nerves
most of cranial nerves are attached to the brainstem, doing many things; 12 pairs, all sorts of functions
Internal capsule
contains many important pathways, including corticospinal tract
Basal ganglia
major role in motor functions
sensory
thalamus- sensory functions travel through here; also high functions of brain such as cognition and emotion, part of diencephalon
Glutamate
+
most common excitatory neurotransmitter; reticular activating system, required for consciousness
GABA ( CNS)
Glycine (spinal cord)
most common inhibitory NTs
Acetylcholine
nuclei in frontal lobe that release called basilis and septal nuclei
released for LMNs, and the ANS
Histamine
hypothalamus sends it to cerebral cortex
NE (+)
area in PONS called locus ceruleus that releases it
Serotonin (-)
raphe nuclei in midbrain/medulla release it all over brainstem
Dopamine (+)
VTA and substantia nigra projects dopamine to other parts of basal ganglia called the striatum -> Parkinson’s
-dopamine of VTA –> PFC/Cort(-) via mesocortical path for negative symptoms of schiz
-dopamine of VTA–>limbic(+) via mesolimbic pathway for positive symptoms of schiz
also dopaminergic neurons in hypothalamus that send dopamine to pituitary gland
also arcuate nucleus
increased in dopamine
decreased in schizophrenia
Monoamines
catecholamines ( dopamine, NE, E)
histamine
serotonin
Brain Structure imaging
CAT/CT scan and MRI
Brain Function Imaging
EEG
MEG/SQUIDS
PET scan
detail of structure, but combine them with CT scans and MRIs- inject glucose and see what areas are most active
fMRI
blood flow usign radioactive label/oxygen
Temperment
-characteristic emotional reactivity, sociability
established and persists, fairly “hardwired”; not samae as personality, broader than personality; seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment
Personality
constant over a person’s lifetime
Hertibility
variability of traits can be attributed to differences in genes
the percentage of variation of traits due to genes
as environment becomes more controlled, differences in behavior traits are more closely tied to heredity and heritability of that trait
h^2= 99% – if boys have same environment, any differences in IQ are 99% or 100% heritable cause environment was 100% same
h^2 = 0% if different environments and identical babies
Innate behavioral traits
reflexes
orientation ( kinesis, taxis)
fixed action pattern (performed without interruption)
Evolutionary Theory
role instincts play in motivation - basic instincts humans have - cry and sleep
Drive Reduction Theory
drives vs needs; need is lack or deprivation that will energize the dirve, or aroused state; that drive is what will reduce the need so can maintain homeostasis
Optimum arousal theory
people want to reach full arousal/alertnesse
Cognitive Theory
thought processes drive behavior
Maslow’s hierarchy of Needs
we need to satisfy needs in a particular order; physio, safety, love, self-esteem then self-acutalization
Incentive theory
calls attention to factors outside of individuals/extrinsic motivators that drive action; lead to repeat behavior, reinforce for increased future frequency
Theory of Planned behavior
we consider the implications of our intentions before we behave- intentions are based on 3 things:
attitudes towards a certain behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control
Attitude to behavior process model
an event triggers our attitude and then attitude +outside knowledge together determines behavior
Prototype Willingness Model
behavior is a function of 6 things: past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intentions, our willingness, and prototypes/models of behavior
Elaboration Likelihood Model for persuasion on behavior
focus on why/how of persuasion
central vs peripheral
Justification of Effort
people do something they don’t want to justify effort they put into it
Cognitive Dissonance and modifications
2+ conflicting ideas, beliefs, values, or emotional reactions –> feeling of discomfort
4 things to reduce discomfort: DAMT
D- Deny the facts
Add-adding more cognition
Modify our cognitions-“I don’t really smoke that much”
T-Trivialize-make evidence or information less important
Attribution
process of inferring causes of events/behaviors; can be internal or external
3 parts - consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
Suspensory ligaments
attached to ciliary muscle-these two things together form the ciliary body, which secretes the aqueous humor
Macula
special part of retina rich in cones
Fovea
in center of macula, only cones, no rods
Choroid
pigmented black in humans, a netowrk of blood vessels; because black, all light is abosrbed
sclera
whites of eye, thick fibrous tissue covers posterior 5/6th of eyeball; attachement point for muscles, lined with conjunctiva
Rods and Phototransduction cascade
120 million
rods are 1000x more sensitive to light than cones
Black and White vision
slow recovery time ( takes a while to adjust to the dark)
found mostly in periphery
night vision, light comes in, turns off rod ( cis to trans retinal) so that it no longer secretes glutamate and so turns ON bipolar cell which turns on ganglion cell which goes itno the optic nerve and enters the brain
Cones
6-7 million cones
3 types: red, green, blue
almost all cones are centered in fovea - high resolution at fovea cause no axons in way of light like restof eye (if light hits periphery it has to go through bundle of axons and some energy lost- so at fovea, hit light cones directly)
fast recovery time
Makeup of photoreceptor
rhodopsin or other opsin - a multimeric protein with 7 discs which contains a small molecule called retinal (11-cis retinal) which changes conformation to trans when hit with light
then transducin which is multimeric breads from rhodopsin and alpha comes to disk and binds to phosphodiesterase (PDE) a disk protein, PDE takes cGMP and converts it to regular GMP and then Na+ channels which need cGMP begin to close and Na+ decreases as cGMP decreases – so glutmate is no longer released ( since rods hyperpolarized now) and bipolar cells are ON which then activates retinal ganglion cell
Photopic vision
high levels of light - cones
Mesopic vision
dusk or dawn-both rods and cones
Scotopic
very low light levels - rods
Blind Spot
where optic nerve connects to retina, there are no cones or rods
Trichromatic Theory of color vision
Form – parvocellular pathway; good spatial poor temporal
Motion-magnocellular; high temporal,poor spatial, no color
Color-cones
Parallel Processing
see all at same time; detect/focus all information ( color, motion, form) at same time
Audition- HAS MIS
hammer, anvil, stirrup
malleus, incus, stapes
Place Theory/ Basilar Tuning
our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane
Apex = 25 Hz low frequency Base = 1600 Hz high frequency
Organ of Corti
includes basilar membrane and tectorial membrane ( lower and upper membrane)
hair bundle on each cell, each filament called a kinocilium, and tip of each kinocilium is connected by a tip link whith is attached to gate of K channel and so movement causes K+ to follow into cell which then causes Ca to get activated and go in and generate an AP in a spiral ganglion cell which then activates the auditory nerve to primary auditory cortex
Tonotopical Mapping
primary auditory cortex is also sensitive to various frequencies in different locations, so with basilar tuning, brain can distinguish diff frequencies and map them to different regions of the aud cortex
Sensory Narrow Hearing loss aka nerve deafness
Cochlear implants!
sound –> mic –> speech processor –> transmitter –>receiver –> stimulator –> cochlea which converts electrical impulse into neural impulse that goes to brain
key of audition
amplification - upregulation of intensity of sound as opposed to sensory adaptation
Proprioception
sense of balance/position; cognitive
tiny sensors located in our muscles that goes up to spinal cord and to the brain so we’re able to tell how contracted or relaxed every muscle in our body is
Kinaesthesia
talking about movement of the body; behavioral
*does not include snse of balance, while proprioception does
Types of Fibers - 3; A-B, A-D, A-C
A-beta: fast, thick and covered in myelin ( less resistance, high conductance)
A-delta: smaller diameter, less myelin
C fibers: small diameter, unmyelinated ( lingering sense of pain)
Temperature receptor
TrypVI receptor
pain also- capsaicin binds
Gate Control Theory of olfaction
“fast blocks slow
theory of the processes of nociception - asserts that non-painful input closes the “gate” of painful input which prevents pain sensation from traveling to the CNS so stimulation by non-noxious input is able to suppress pain
Olfaction
olfactory epithelium –> to olfactory sensory cells –separating the olfactory epithelium from the brain is the cribriform plate–
olfactory bulb is the brain region which is above cribriform plate, it is a bundle of nerves that sends little projections through the plate into the olfactory epithelium, which branch off= at the end of each connection are receptors which are sensitive to one type of molecule; molecule binds, will trigger APwhich will end up in olfactory bulb in a special region specific to that type of molecule called a glomerulus which then synapses on a mitral/tufted cell which projects to the brain
Labeled-Line Theory
scenario where each receptor would respond to specific stimuli and is directly linked to the brain
***smell does not synapse at thalamus, so stays IPSILATERAl
Vibrational Theory
vibration frequency of each molecule gives it its specific odor profile
Steric Theory/Shape Theory
odor fits into receptors similar ot lock and key
Vomeronasal System
within the accessory olfactory epithelium, where basal cells and apical cells are located
basal cells send axon thorugh olfactory bulb to glomerulus and then mitral/tufted cell, which eventually goes to amygdala
we have this but no accessory olfactory bulb
Gustation tastes
Bitter -GPCR Sweet- GPCR Salty ( NaCl) - ion channel Sour (H+) - ion channel Umami
Taste Buds
Fungiform( anterior-most), Foliate(side), and Circumvallate ( back)
each taste bud are the 5 receptor cells that can detect each taste; each taste be detected anywhere on the tongue
Gustation
each receptor has an axon which will remain separate until the brain, where all synapse on different parts of gustatory cortex
Sleep Stages
BATS Drink Blood ( lower frequency as progress); 4 stages that occur in 90 minute cycles
Non-REM N1 - theta, hypnagonic, hallucinations, tetris, hypnic jerks
Non-REM N2 - theta + sleep spindles and K-complexes, deeper sleep, harder to wake, memory consolidation
Non-REM N3- Slow Wave Sleep;walking/talking happens here; declarative memory consolidation
REM-muscles are paralyzed, dreaming, memory consolidation best here, alpha, beta and dysynchronous waves, paradoxical sleep cause brain is active; waking up during REM prevents memory formation of dream
Freud and Dreaming
dreams are our unconscious thoughts and desires that need to be interpreted; they have MEANING and help us resolve and identify conflict; little scientific support
manifest content-monster chasing you
latent content- job pushing you out
can help us resolve and identify hidden conflict
Evolutionary Biology and Dreaming
threat stimulation, to prepare for real world
problem solving
no purpose- stream of consciousness
Activation Synthesis Hypothesis of Dreaming
brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex
brainstem = activation; cortex =synthesis
our brain is simply trying to find meaning from random brain activity, therefore might not have meaning
N3 crazy
sleep apnea
sleepwalking/sleep talkin
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
obstruction to airways causes problems breathing at night; feel tired/sleep when wake up
measure with polysomnography
Cetnral Sleep Apnea
presence of apneas without obstruction, problem with control system for ventilation
Cheyne-Stokes breathing- period of oscillations, then flat pattern in polysomnography
Hypoventilation and Lungs
in lungs or chest wall, can occur ( high CO2, low O2) , caused by medication/obesity
chronically elevated pCO2 can lead to right-sided heart failure
Dissociation Theory of hypnotisim
hypnotism is an extreme form of divided consciousness
*hypnotism has more alpha waves
Social influence theory of hypnotism
people do and report what’s expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles
Meditation
training people to self-regulate their attention and awareness
increased attention control ( goal of mediation)
PFC, hippocampus, right anterior insula activation
Deprassants
alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines
disrupt sleep, decrease CNS, BP, processing speech, reduced memory, judgement, concentration
prescribed for anxiety and sleep problems
Benzo- enhance brain’s response to GABA
Opiates
Heroin, Morphine, oxycodone, hydrocodone NOT depressants reduce pain by act at body's receptor sites for endorphins decrease CNS, BP, vasodilation, constrict pupils analgesic ( decrease perception of pain) natural- opiates synthetic-opiods lead to euphoria so taken recreationally
Stimulatns
Caffeine, Nicotine, Cocaine, Amphetamines and methamphetamines
stimulate, inc CNS, BP, alertness, asodilate, jittery, inc glucose metabolism
Caffeine- inhibits adenosine receptors which disrupts sleep
Nicotine-disrupts sleep and suppress appetite ( at high levels it can cause muscles to relax and release stress-reducing nts ( to counteract the hyper alertness)
addicting, withdrawal like insomina, irritible, anxiety
Cocaine-releases so much serotonin, dopamine ( blocks dopamine reputake) and NE that it depletes body’s supply so intense crash and very depressed when wears off; regular users can experience suspicion, convulsions, respiratory arrest and cardiac failure
Amphetamines and Methamphetamines - increase release of dopamine (prevent reuptake), euphoria, highly addictive, long-term addicts lose ability to maintain normal level of dopamine
Hallucinogens
ecstasy, LSD, marijuana, mescaline, peyote, PCP, psilocyobin (mushroom)
cause altered/disordted perception, may types of hallucinations
ecstasy- mix of stimulant and hallucinogen - inc OR dec Energy, inc BP, dilate pupils, dehydration, overheat, die, inc dopamine and serotonin for euphoria, inc CNS, hallucinations and heightened sensations, social connectedness feeling
LSD-interferes with serotonin, hallucinations which are VISUAL ( not auditory)
Marijuana - mild hallucinogen, active chemical is THC which heightens sensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells
reduces inhibition like alchol, impairs motor and coordination skills, disrupts memory formation and short-term recall
THC can stay in body up to 3 months in fat cells
tolerance can increase amoutn needed for impairment, used as medicine to relieve pain and nausea
Routes of Drug Entry
Oral-slowest
Inhalation- breathing or smoking
Injection- most direct, right to vein, v dangerous, most abused; injected drugs have higher addiction potential
Transdermal-skin, nicotine patch, released into bloodstream over several hours
Intramuscular- stuck in muscle, can deliver drugs to your system slowly or quickly - epipen or vaccines = fastest route
Reward Pathway in the Brain
when first experience pleasure, brain releases neurotransmitter called dopamine which is produced in VTA in midbrain
VTA sends dopamine to amygdala, nucleas accumbens, PFC, and hippocampus ( nAcc, amygdala, and hippocampus are part of mesolimbic pathway)
different stimuli activate circuit to different degrees
(increase dopamine, decrease serotonin ( which signals satiety))
Tolerance
you get used to a drug so you need more of it to achieve the same effect
-long term stimulation can lead brain to shut down some receptors so same amount of drugs won’t cause same high
Withdrawal
if go through a period of not having the drug, you experience withdrawal symptoms; stronger with stronger drugs
once you’ve built up tolerance, need the drug to feel “normal” again
BUT with time and effort, brain can reverse back
-2 stages: acute and post-acute
acute- few weeks, physical symptoms, vary from person to person ; for alcohol only 2 days after cessation can experience this
Post-acute: fewer physical, more emotional and psychological; same for everyone
Cross Tolerance
reduction in the efficacy or responsiveness to a novel drug due to a common CNS target
Intoxication
behavioral and psychological effects on the person, drug-specific
Post-Acute Withdrawal Symptoms (PAWS)
can last 2 years
mood swings, anxiety, irritability, low enthusiasm
roller coaster and each episode lasts about a few days
Methadone
treat opiate addiction, activates opiage receptors too but acts more slowly so dampens high and eases withdrawal
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
addresses both cognitive and behavioral components of addiction
recognize problematic situations and develop more positive thought patterns and coping strategies, and monitor cravings
anticipate problematic situations like partys with drugs
Motivational Interviewing
working with patient to find intrinsic motivation to change
Group meetings
like AA, 12 step program
Relapse
when patient can slip and go back – more addictive substances make relapse more likely, why it’s hard for people to stay clean
Covert Orienting
bring spotlight of attention to somethign without body or eye
Overt Orienting
person turns all or part of body to alter or maximize sense of stimulus
Attentional capture
when attention is attracted by motion of an object or stimulus
Executive Attention
involved in goal-oriented behavior ( dopamine and VTA)
Neglect Syndrome
damage to brain causes loss in capacity of spatial dimension of divided attention
Orienting Attention
capacity to change focus - ACh and basal forebrain ( includes nuAcc, septal nuclei, and nucleus basilis
Divided attention
switing between tasks rather than doing them simultaneously
Directed Attention
allows attention to be focused sustainably on a single task
Selective Attention
ability to maintain attention while being presented with masking or interfering stimuli; when you switch your attention, you’re exercising your selective attention ( like a flashlight, at any given moment illuminating one area of interest)
Types of Cues
exogenous- don’t have to tell ourselves to look for them, but they are external to any goals - bright colors, loud noises
endogenous-require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it; cocktail party effect ( ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd or when someone calls your name)
Inattentional/perceptual blindness
we aren’t aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field
Change Blindness
we fail to notice changes in environment ( between previous and current state)
Shadowin task
hearing test- left ear hear one thing, right ear another thing then told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other; all about selective attention
Braodbent’s Early Selection Theory
all information in environment goes into sensory register –> selective filter –> perceptual process –> other cognitive processes
prob- if completely filter out unattended info, shouldn’t identify your own name in unidentified ear like in Cocktail party effect
Deutch & Deutch’s Late Selection Theory
places broadband selective filter AFTER perceptual processes – selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness but everything is assigned meaning
sensory register –> perceptual processing –> selective filter –> other cognitive processing
Treisman’s Attenuation theory
instead of complete selective filter, we have an attenuator - weakens but doesn’t eliminate input from unattended ear and then assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority
sensory register –>attenuator –> perceptual processes –> other cognitive processes
Spotlight Model of Attention
selective attention- takes information from 5 sense, but doesn’t pay attention to everything
we are aware of things on an unconscious level
depends on priming
Resource Model of Attetion
we have limited resources in attention
both models say something about oru ability to multitask - not very good at it
Ability to Multitask/Divided Attention based on
task similarity- harder to multitask with similar tasks
Task difficulty-harder tasks require more focus ( drive in new area)
Practice- activities well practiced become automatic, or things that occur without need for attention ; whether task is automatic or controlled (harder)
Sanctions
rewards/punishments for behaviors in accord with or against norms
can be formal or informal
Folkways
mildest type of norm, like manners of opening door
Mores
norms based on moral value/belief like not lying
Laws
based on right and wrong and have formal consequences
Taboos
completely wrong in any circumstance and violation results in consequences that are extreme, like cannabilism
Deviance
violating a norm
Theory of Differential Association
deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others that violate norms and laws- learn from observation of others
Labeling Theory
a behavior is deviant if people have judged that behavior and labelled it as deviant
