P/S Flashcards
1
Q
Sensory Adaptation
A
downregulation of a receptor over time due to being overstimulated
1. Hearing: inner ear will maintain contraction
2. Touch: temperature receptors desensitized
3. Smell: receptors get desensitized
4. Proprioreception: Body will acclimate to being off balanced by finding new equilibrium
5. Sight: eyes will adapt to high or low light conditions
2
Q
Weber’s law
A
Law of the just noticeable difference (JND)
- Threshold where you’re able to detect ∆es in sensation
- Ex.) adding 0.5 lbs to 5 lbs vs 0.5 lbs to 200 lbs
3
Q
Absolute Threshold of sensation
A
Stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
- Can depend on the individual and how primed they are
4
Q
Subliminal stimuli
A
stimuli below the absolute threshold
5
Q
Vestibular system f(x)
A
balance and spatial orientation
- Focus on the inner ear which contains the semicircular canals (detector) and endolymph (liquid)
- Shifts can be detected which can result in dizziness
6
Q
Signal Detection Theory
A
how we make decisions under periods of uncertainty (discerning what stimuli is “important”)
- We recognize important stimuli and unimportant “noise”
7
Q
Bottom up processing
A
stimulus influences out perception
- we process sensory info as it comes in
- Ex) we perceive small pieces of info and put them together
8
Q
Top-down processing
A
background info informs our perception
- our perception is driven by cognition
- Ex) we know what we are looking for
9
Q
Gestalt’s principles
A
- similarity: items that are similar are grouped together
- Pragnanz: reality is organized into simpler forms (seeing olympic symbol vs 5 rings)
- proximity: objects close together are grouped together
- continuity: lines follow the smoothest path
- closure: objects seen together are seen as a whole
10
Q
Structure of the eye
A
- cornea: transparent sheet of tissue that focuses the eye
- anterior chamber: contains fluid that maintains shape of eye
- lens: bends light so it goes to the back of the eye
- ciliary muscle: responsible for eye movement
- vitreous chamber: filled w/ vitreous jelly and provide pressure to the eyeball
- retina: filled with photoreceptors; rods and cones
- choroid: helps to supply oxygen to the eye w/ its blood vessels
11
Q
Rods (eye)
A
detect light
12
Q
Cones (eye)
A
detect color
13
Q
Phototransduction cascade
A
- Light hits retinal and causes a ∆ in conformation of larger protein rhodopsin
- Transducin, bound to rhodopsin, will unbind and bind phosphodiesterase (PDE)
- PDE converts cGMP to GMP
- low [cGMP] results in low Na+ entering into the cell, causing hyperpolarization and reduced glutamate activity
- Bipolar cell is no longer inhibited by glutamate and the optic nerve sends an impulse to the brain
14
Q
Rod vs cone recovery time
A
Rods have slow recovery time, cones have a quick recovery time
15
Q
Parallel processing
A
See everything @ the same time, and process what’s important from what’s not important
- see a stop sign and a Taco Bell but respond to sign Bc it’s more important
16
Q
Sound is detected through
1.
2.
A
- pressurized sound waves
- hair cells
17
Q
Bones in eardrum
A
malleus, incus, stapes
18
Q
How does sound get transmitted from ear to brain
A
Fluid in the cochlea also moves back and forth in accordance w/ sound waves
- sound waves move the hairs around, which cause K+ channels to open, allowing K to flow into the cells
- Once K+ enters into the cells, Ca2+ also enters the cells and can begin the AP to activate the auditory nerve
19
Q
What is the hearing threshold?
A
20-20,000 Hz
20
Q
Basilar tuning
A
Varying hair cells in the cochlea are used to differentiate differing fq of noise
21
Q
Tonotypical mapping
A
The “map” of sounds the brain makes based on its differences in fq
22
Q
Somatosensation
A
physiological mechanism by which we manifest physical stimuli and perceive its feeling as touch, pressure and pain
23
Q
Types of somatosensation
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
A
- Temperature
- Pressure (mechanoreception)
- Pain (nociception)
- Position and balance (proprioception)
24
Q
Sensory amplification
A
upregulation in perception of stimulus
25
Sensory cortex
map of the brain that links to physical sensation
- physically stimulating the brain will activate feelings in certain parts of the body
26
Kinesthesia vs proprioception
Kinesthesia: awareness of the movement of your body
Proprioception: how we perceive the position of our bodies, especially equilibrium and balance
- Awareness of our bodies in space
27
TrypV1 receptor
thermoreceptor
28
How many mlc can bind to a olfactory receptor?
1 type of mlc
29
How is smell received? (Steps 1-4)
1. mlc will bind to GPCR
2. olfactory cell send AP to the olfactory bulb
3. all receptors coalesce to the glomerulus
4. Glomeruli border and fire onto the mitral/tufted cell
30
Pheromones
mlc that can be detected via olfactory reception
31
Amygdala
involved w/ emotion, aggression, mating, etc
- If destroyed, we get a mellowing effect
32
Gustation is what sensation?
Taste
33
5 tastes
bitter, salty, sweet, savory, sour
34
Differential association theory
a person learns deviant vehavior from those in their close social group
35
Labeling theory
deviant behavior in the past can cause a person to be stigmatized long-term
36
GPCR taste receptors
1. Sweet
2. Savory
3. Bitter
- reception of these mlcs results in signal transduction cascade (ex. glucose binding to GPCR and causes signal cascade to fire AP to brain [very indirect])
37
ion channel taste receptors
1. Sour
2. Salty
- bind to receptor directly (ex. NaCl binds to salt receptor which causes AP to fire)
38
Low vs high p-values (statistical analysis)
Low p-value: high evidence = there is an effect
High p-value: low evidence/no effect
39
Conscienceness
awareness of self and environment
- range from alertness to sleep
40
Daydreaming
feel more relaxed, not focused
- can also be light meditation
41
Sleep waves (B-A-T-D)
Sleep: not aware of the world around you
- Beta waves (high fq): associated with awake and concentration
- Alpha waves: daydreaming, drowsy and appear in deep sleep. Happens during relaxation
- Theta waves: drowsiness right after you've fallen asleep
- Delta waves (low fq): deep sleep or coma
42
EEGs measure...
brain waves
43
Order of the stages of sleep
sleep happens in patterns and occurs in 90 min cycles
- N1—›N2—›N3—›N2—›REM
44
Non-rapid eye movement sleep stage
first stage of sleep (non-REM)
45
N1 stage of sleep
50:50 mix of alpha and theta waves
- Can result in mild hallucinations
- Can lead to the **Tetris effect**: playing Tetris before bed and you see blocks
46
N2 stage of sleep
Deeper stage of sleep that has majority theta waves (deep sleep)
47
Sleep spindles
Found in the N2 phase of sleep
- help inhibit perceptions so we maintain tranquil state while sleeping
- Allow us to sleep through loud noises
48
K-complexes
suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep
- helps in sleep-based memory consolidation
49
N3 stage of sleep
slow wave sleep
- characterized by delta waves
50
REM (rapid-eye movement) stage
dreaming occurs
- brain is active but body is paralyzed
- Waking up during this phase prevents memory formation of the dream
- Inc. activity in prefrontal cortex (resp for logic)
51
Circadian rhythms
cycle of sleep and awakeness
- Based upon melatonin released by the pineal gland
- Daylight is a queue
52
Dreaming theories
1. Freud
2. Evolutionary biologist
3. Other
1. Freud thought that it was the unconscious desires wanting to be interpreted
2. Biologist assumes that it's about threat simulation so that we're ready for the real world
3. Some support that it helps maintain brain flexibility
- Helps to consolidate thoughts to long-term memory
53
Activation synthesis hypothesis (dreaming)
brain gets lots of neural inputs while sleeping into the prefrontal cortex
- Brain tries to make sense of the random brain activity and dreams are that
54
Problems coming from sleep deprivation
1. Obesity (body makes more cortisol, stim hunger)
2. Depression
55
Sleep debt
sleeping after skipping it can put us on the right track for healthy sleep habits
56
insomnia vs narcolepsy
insomnia: can't fall asleep
narcolepsy: can't stay awake
57
Sleep apnea
Happens when we sleep and get reduced airflow into the body
- We literally asphyxiate since we're not getting enough O2 and we wake up briefly
58
Hypnotism
Get person to relax and focus on breathing
- Makes them more suggestible in that state
59
Dissociation theory (hypnotism)
hypnotism is extreme form of divided consciousness
60
Social influence theory
people do and report what's expected of them
61
Depressants
lower the body's basic f(x)s
Ex.) heart rate, rxn time, etc
62
Barbiturates
used to induce sleep and reduce anxiety
- Depress CNS
63
Benzodiazepines
Sleep aid and anti-anxiety medication
- Super common
- Enhances brain's response to GABA which opens Cl- channels making neurons more -q'ed
When GABA is active, we are able to relax
64
Opiates
used to treat pain and anxiety
- Act upon the body's endorphin receptors
65
Caffeine
Inhibit AMP receptors and disrupts sleep
66
Nicotine
disrupts sleep and reduces appetite
- @ high levels it can cause muscle relaxation and stress reduction
- Physiologically addicting
67
Cocaine
stimulant
- causes unnatural influx of dopamine, serotonin and norep.
- Depletion of these chemicals results in withdrawal sx's
68
Amphetamines
trigger the release of dopamine
- highly addictive
69
Ecstacy
Both a stimulant and hallucinogen
- Inc. dopamine and serotonin
- Stim. CNS but can damage neurons by doing that
70
LSD
interferes with serotonin which causes visual hallucinations
71
Marijuana
THC inc. sensitivity to sounds, tastes, smells
- impairs locomotion and coordination
- Disrupts memory formation and short-term recall
72
Homeostasis and drug dependence
When you take a drug and build habits before taking it, your body adapts to make sure it gets to baseline by the time you consume it
- Ex.) when you smell coffee when making it, you become lower in energy b/c your body is anticipating caffeine
73
How are dopamine and serotonin related?
Reciprocally regulated
74
Tolerance
Getting used to stimulus
- Ex.) needing more drug to get same effect
75
Methandone
Helps to detox opiate addicts
- Activates opiate receptors but slowly, so as to dampen the high
- Reduces withdrawal and cravings and the high from using opiates (receptors are in use)
76
Cognitive behavioral therapy
Addresses both cognitive and behavioral components of addiction
- By recognizing bad situations, you are able to respond better, especially w/ coping strategies
77
Motivational interviewing (withdrawal)
working with pt to find intrinsic motivation to ∆
78
Relapse
Pt goes back into addictive behaviors
79
Divided attention
focusing on multiple things @ once which often leads to switching b/w them when it comes to tasks
80
Selective attention
When we process stimuli selectively as they come in
81
Exogenous cues
Sensory stimuli that require no effort to notice
- Ex.) bright colors, loud noises
82
Endogenous cues
require understanding to know that it's a stimulus
- Ex.) Arrow —›
83
Cocktail party effect
Brain is able to take in multiple stimuli but focuses auditory attention on 1 particular stimulus
84
Inattentional blindness
when we focus attention at a point, we are unaware of other things not in our visual field
85
Change blindness
don't notice changes
86
Broadbent early selection theory (a theory of selective attention)
1. Info enters our brain (words),
2. unnecessary info gets sorted out (accents),
3. important info get recognized (who said something and what those words mean)
87
Deutch & Deutch late selection theory (a theory of selective attention)
Info is filtered AS IT ENTERS our brain, then important info gets passed to conscious awareness (Brita filter)
- This filter determines what is important enough to pass onto the brain
88
Treisman's attenuation theory (a theory of selective attention)
When info enters our brain, it doesn't get filtered out completely but "attenuated" (shitty filter)
- Everything enters our consciousness, but less important things aren't assigned high priority
89
Priming
Exposure to 1 stim affects response to another stim
- Happens even when we weren't paying attention to the 2nd stim
- previous exp influences our current interpretation of new events
90
Resource model of attention
attention is a limited resource
91
Multitasking/divided attention is affect by 3 factors
1. Task similarity: if tasks are similar, then they are easy to do together
2. Task difficulty: harder tasks require more focus
3. Practice: if we know what we're doing, then it's easier to do mindlessly
92
Information processing model
Brain is like computer
- Input information (sensory), process it, output decisions
93
Iconic memory
what we remember what we see (0.5 sec)
94
Echoic memory
what we remember about what we hear (3-4 sec)
95
Working memory
Another name for short term memory/what you're thinking about in the moment
96
Phonological loop (working memory)
temporarily holds verbal information
- same thing as echoic memory
97
Central executive
Controls and processes working memory
98
Episodic buffer (working memory)
stores visual and auditory info
- records whole "episodes"
99
Visuo-spatial sketchpad (working memory)
how we hold spatial + visual info
- Ex.) remember how to do specific Judo moves
100
dual coding hypothesis
easier to remember words when they're associated w/ images
101
long-term memory
Storage of information for extended period of time
- capacity is limited
102
Explicit memory (long-term)
facts/events that we can clearly describe
- semantic or episodic
103
Semantic memory
ability to recall words, concepts, #'s
- knowing vocab
104
Episodic memory
memories related to events
105
Implicit memory
memory that cannot be described but is just known
- Ex.) Speaking our native language
106
Procedural memory
memory of how to do things (riding a bike)
107
5 ways to encode info
1. Rote reversal: do the same thing over and over again
2. chunking: group things together (categorize)
3. mnemonic devices
4. Self-referencing: think how info relates to you personally
5. spacing: spreading studying to shorter periods
108
habituation vs dishabituation
habituation: getting used to a stimulus
dishabituation: when you're already used to a stimulus (tuning it out or sth) and something happens that makes youo notice it again
- Ex.) you ostart tuning out the neighbor's music but then someone slams the door and you focus on that. Then b/c your hearing is peaked, you notice the music again
109
State-dependent memory
memory that depends on the state you processed it
- If you learn something drunk, you'll remember the next time you're drunk
- If you're happy seeing an ad, next time you're happy you think of the ad
110
Free recall vs cued recall
free: able to recall w/o cues
cued: need help w/ info retrieval
- need to hear "pl" to remember planet
111
Distal vs proximal stimuli
distal: the actual stimulus itself
proximal: stimulus "proximal" to our receptors
- In this sense, the stimulus has been made "close" to us, such as light getting its image put into our retina
112
Source monitoring error
memory error where source of the memory is wrongly attributed to another exp
- angry w/ someone but forgot it happened in a dream
113
Source monitoring error
memory error where source of the memory is wrongly attributed to another exp
- angry w/ someone but forgot it happened in a dream
114
flashbulb memories
highly vivid memories
- Still able to be reconstructed
115
Long-term potentiation
No new brain cells, memories form b/c connections b/w neurons get stronger
116
RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE
new learning impairs old info recall
- issues thinking in retrospect
117
PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE
past impairs future learning
- Issues thinking about the future
118
What memories stay stable as you age?
implicit memory, recognition
119
What memories improve as you age?
semantic memory (verbal skills), crystalized IQ (ability to use knowledge), emotional reasoning
120
What memories get worse as you age?
Recall, episodic memory (difficult to make new memories), processing speed, divided attention
- Prospective memory (remembering to do things in the future)
121
Alzheimer's disease
Forgetting so much that it interferes w/ normal life
- caused by excessive neuronal death
- buildup of amyloid plaque in the brain
- Sx's include memory loss, attention, planning, semantic memory, abstract thinking
122
Korakoff syndrome
Damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, confusion and memory loss
- lack of vitamin B1 due to malnutrition
- If found early it can be treated w/ proper diet and cognitive therapy
123
RETROGRADE AMNESIA
inability to remember things from the past
124
ANTERGOGRADE ANMESIA
inability to remember new things
125
Piaget theory of cognitive development
Children aren't mini adults, but actively construct their view of the world
126
Piaget stages of development
Sensorimotor stage
- babies develop smell, hearing, touch and become active
- 0-2 years old
- children develop **object permamence**
Preoperational stage
- 2-7 years old
- no empathy, but begin to oengage in **pretend play**
Concrete operational stage
- 7-12 years ld
- kids learn empathy and pass the **water conservation test**
Formal operational stage
- 12+
- **learn to do abstract moral reasoning** and abstract consequences
127
Trial + error
poor means of problem solving but will work with enough time
128
Algorithm problem solving
logical prodecure of trying solutions until one works
129
Heuristics (problem solving)
mental shortcut to find solution
- **Means end analysis**: analyze problems and break it down to smaller problems
- **Working backwards**: start w/ goal and connect back to current
130
Intuition (problem solving)
Relying on instinct to solve problem
- Fixation: getting stuck on wrong approach
- Fixationc an cause the "aha" moment
131
Type I error
false positive
Ex.) + pregnancy test when you're not pregnant
132
Type II error
false negative
Ex.) you're actually pregnant even though test says no
133
Availability heuristic
using examples that come to mind (available) to solve a problem
134
Representativeness heuristic
estimating the likelihood of sth happening based on our previous experiences w/ it
- Leads to the conjunction fallacy: if youo see the excepiton to the rule, you assume that it can happen for you
- think: "something like this happened to me before"
135
Biases that prevent correct decision making (3)
1. Overconfidence
2. belief perseverance: ignore disconcerning facts
3. confirmaiton bias: seek out confirming facts
136
Framing effect
How you frame a situaiton affects what answer people will choose
137
Semantic networks
concepts are organized in the mind in terms of connected ideas
- Similar to how they're stored in computers
- kinda like a schema
138
Spreading activation
When we think abooutt 1 concept, we think of all concepts related to it
- Allows for false memories, since we remember wrong info that is related
139
Spearman general intelligence theory
People who score well on 1 test tend tot score well on subsequent assessments
- People have a g factor that describes their overall smartness
140
3 intelligences theory
1. analytical (academic)
2. creative (generatte new ideas)
3. practical (problem-solving)
141
Fluid vs crystallized intelligence
- Fluid: ability to reason quickly and abstractly
- Crystallized: accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
142
Identical twins vs fraternal twins
**Identical**: come from the same zygote (hence why theyre almost exactly the same genetically)
**Fraternal**: 2 ovum were a part of a single menstural cycle that were both implanted by diff sperm
- Results in genetic differences
143
Fixed vs growth mindset
Fixed: intelligence is biologically set and un∆ing
Growth: intelligence is ∆able as you learn more
144
Gardner's 8 intelligences
1. Spatial: visualizing the world in 3D
2. Naturalist: understanding living things and nature
3. Musical: discernign pitch, timbre, etc
4. Bodily/kinesthetic: coordinating body w/ mind
5. Linguistic: finding the right words to express what you mean
6. intra-personal: understanding youself and what you want
7. interpersonal: sensing people's feelings and emotions
8. mathematical: quantifying things and proving hypotheses
I Love Beer So Much, a Liter Is Nothing
145
Behaviorist theory of language & cognition
language is condittioned behavior
146
Nativist (Chomsky) theory of languange & cognition
language is innate
- Children are born w/ mechanisms for learning language
- There is a critical period from 0-9 that children are most apt to learn a language
147
Materialist theory of language & cognition
look @ what happens in the brain when people think/speak/write
148
Interactionist (Vygotsky) theory of language & cognition
Interplay b/w env. cues and biology
- bio and social factors interact in order for kids to learn language
- The fact that kids want to interact with adults makes them want to learn language
149
Universalist theory of language & cognition
Thought determines language completely
150
Piaget theory of language & cognition
children think in certain ways and develop ways to describe these thoughts
151
Weak linguistic determinism
language *influences* thought (not a super huge effect)
- Ex) reading left —› right is how we imagine girl pushing boy
152
Strong linguistic determinism
Our language determines our **whole cognitive processes**
- Our language determines how we exp the world
153
Skinner learning theory (behaviorist approach)
Language is a form of behavior and is learned through operant conditioning
- kids only acquire language through reinforcement
154
language processing occurs in the ____ hemisphere
left
155
Broca's area
Resp for speech pdn
- Damage means we’re able to understand language but unable to communicate
- Found in frontal lobe
Broca = Production
156
Wernicke's area
Involved in understanding words
- Can hear words and repeat them back, but if damaged, they can't understand what other say and their words don't make sense
- Found in the temporal lobe
Wernicke = Understanding
157
Global aphasia
both Broca's area and Wernicke's area are damaged
158
Agraphia
inability to write
159
Anomia
Inability to name things
160
Limbic system
Responsible for the storage/retrieval of memories (esp tied to emotions)
- Hippo wearing a HAT: Hippocampus, hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus
161
Thalamus
sensory relay station: eth we consume via sensory input goes through here to correct station
- part of limbic system
- Note: smell goes to amygdala
162
Hippocampus
Key role in formation of new memories
- Converts short term —› long term memory
- when damaged, we recall old memories but can't make new ones
163
Hypothalamus
regulates the ANS and endocrine system
- creates GnRH, GH, Dopamine, etc
164
Left vs Right hemispheres of brain (mood)
R hemisphere: negative emotions
- Isolated kids have activity in R brain
L hemisphere: positive emotions
- Social kids have activity in L brain
165
Prefrontal cortex
responsibel for higher order f(x)s
- Ability to solve problems, make decisions, how we act in social situations
166
Sympathetic nervous response
- pupils dilate (get more light)
- decrease in salivation; decrease digestion
- inc. respiration and bpm (inc. O2 delivery to tissues)
- adrenaline release
167
Parasympathetic nervous system
- pupils constrict
- de. respiration and bpm
- inc. glucose storage
- decrease adrenaline release, inc. acetylcholine release
- inc. digestion
168
3 components to emotion
1. Physiological (in. HR, tense muscles)
2. Cognitive (how a person perceives a situation varies from person to person)
3. Behavioral (emotions bring about behaviors)
169
Ekman's 6 universal emotions
1. happiness
2. sadness
3. fear
4. disgust
5. anger
6. surprise
Think: "*Inside out*"
170
James-Lange theory of emotion
emotion is due to perception of physiological responses
- Physiological —› emotion
171
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
physiological responses and emotions occur simultaneously
- Physiological = Emotion
172
Schacter-Singer theory of emotion
physiological and cognitive responses form emotion
- We don't feel emotion until we're able to ID reason for situation
- Physiological + cognitive —› emotion
173
Lazarus theory of emotion
Experience w/ emotion depends on how situation is appraised
- Stimulus leads to appraisal which causes emotion + response
- Cognitive —› emotion + physiological
174
Yerkes-Dodson Law
People who are moderately aroused perform the best
175
Primary appraisal of stress
put stress into 3 categories: **irrelevant**, **benign** (positive), **stressful** (negative)
- If 1° appraisal is ***stressful***, then move onto 2° appraisal
176
Secondary appraisal of stress
if 1° assessment was stressful, this assessment is about answering if we are able to cope w/ the threat or deal w/ the stressor
- Appraisal fo the actual harm
177
4 categories of stressors
1. Significant life canges (death of loved one, losing job)
2. Catastrophic events (natural disasters)
3. daily hassles (long lines, forgetting car keys)
4. ambient stressors (noise, crowding)
178
Reticular activating system
works with ANS to Allow us to exp and understand our emotions
- Found in midbrain
179
General adaptation syndrome (1-4)
1. Alarm phase: stress kicks in (HR inc.)
2. Resistance: fleeing, huddling, etc (lots of cortisol released)
3. Recovery: stimulus is removed and we go back to homeostasis
4. Exhaustion: if resistance isn't followed by a recovery period, then tissue can become damaged
180
Effects of chronic stress
1. hypertension/vascular disease
2. inc. cortisol can result in diabetes
3. impotence
4. autoimmune disease from inflammation
5. atrophy of prefrontal cortex
181
Learned helplessness
having control constantly ripped out of your hands leads to you learning that you don't have control
- Leads to coping mechanisms to deal w/ this
182
3 means of stress management
1. Perceived control: higher control you perceive, less stress
2. optimism: look on the bright side
3. social support: helps us know we're not alone
183
How are neurotransmitters removed form the synaptic cleft? (3 ways)
184
Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic NS (graph)
Sympathetic: pathetic b/c you're stressed
Parasympathetic: paradise
185
F(x)s of the nervous system (basic & higher)
Basic:
- Motor (control of skeletal muscles)
- Sensory
- Autonomic (reflexes)
Higher:
- cognition
- emotions
- consciousness (abstract thinking)
186
Structure of NS
CNS: brain and spinal cord
PNS: eth else
187
More myelin sheaths, ____ signal
faster signal
188
Atrophy
wasting away of skeletal muscle
189
Fasciculations
involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle
190
Hypotonia
decreased muscle tone
191
Hyporeflexia
decreased muscle stretch reflex
192
White vs gray matter
White: myelinated axons
Gray: contains neuron cell bodies
Note: *axons go down white matter*
193
Upper motor neurons
Control the LMN
194
Lower motor neurons
control muscles of the limbs and trunk
195
Frontal lobe
Motor, cognition
196
Parietal lobe
sensation, spatial awareness
197
Occipital lobe
vision processing
198
Temporal lobe
sound and understanding the meaning of words
199
Cerebellum
controls the fine tuning of motor control
- frontal lobe controls gross motor movement
200
Corpus collosum
connects right and left brain
201
Glutamate
excitatory nt
202
GABA (brain) and glycine (spinal cord)
GABA: inhibitory nt of the CNS
- inhibits nerve transmission
- promotes sleep, relieves anxiety
Glycine: inhibitory nt of PNS
203
acetylcholine
parasympathetic nt that binds postsynaptic nervous dendrites to get a signal sent down a nerve
- broken down by *acetylcholinesterase*
- needed for muscle contraction
- contracts smooth muscles
- dilates blood vessels
- slows heart rate and inc. digestion
204
Serotonin
involved in feelings of happiness, calm and focus
- more involved in long term happiness (fulfillment)
- diminished in depressed people
205
Dopamine
pleasure hormone involved in rewards and motivation
- instant gratification (Tinder match)
206
CAT scan
severla X-rays that are put together to make a full body image to diagnose diseases
207
EEG
see how stimulus can cause certain neural **group** to fire
- Ex) see how dopamine affects a tissue vs individual neurons
208
MEG
better resolution that EEG
209
MRI
use magnetic fields to generate images of organs in the body
210
fMRI
used to measure and map brain activity through detecting ∆es in blood flow
211
PET scans
inject glucose into cells and you can see what areas are more active @ a certain instance in time
212
Schizophrenia
delusions, hallucinations, unusual physical behvaior and disorganized thinking
213
epigenetics
∆es to gene expression outside of basic genetic code
- How environment affects genetics
213
phenylketonia
built-up phenylalanine causes brain problems
214
Innate behavioral traits (5)
1. inherited: coded by DNA
2. Intrinsic: present even if grown up in isolation
3. stereotypic: performed the same way ea time
4. Inflexible: not modded by exp
5. Consummate: fully dev right away
215
Learned behavioral traits (5)
1. Non-inherited: acquired through observation
2. Extrinsic: absent when growing up in isolation
3. Permutable: ∆able
4. Adaptable: can be modified due to ∆ing conditions
5. Progressive: can be inproved w/ time
216
Evolutionary theory of motivation
Instincts play a role in motivation
- basic needs must be met, therefore we have a desire to do things (eat, sleep, etc)
217
Drive-reduction theory
need is a lack or deprivation that will energize us to reduce the arousal
- Drive will reduce the need
218
Optimum arousal theory
We are driven to be fully aroused
- Why there are Tiktoks w/ Subway surfers under a video
219
Maslow's heirarcy of needs
1. Physiological: food, water, breathing, sleep (needed to survive)
2. Safety: health, access to resources, property
3. Love: need to belong (social needs)
4. Self-esteem: need to feel sense of fulfillment in achievement
5. Self-actualizatin: person reaching maximum potential
220
Operant conditioning
Reinforcement: keep doing same behavior (studying)
Punishment: stop behavior (crying)
Positive: reward (candy)
Negative: punishment (hit/electric shock)
Note: partial reinforcement makes response slow to acquire, but less likely to go extinct than a continuous reinforcement
221
ABC model of attitude
- affective: emotional
- behavioral: how we act towards object
- Cognitive: formation of thoughts and beliefs
Ex) I am **afraid** of rollercoasters and **think they are stupid**, so **I will be** on the feris wheel.
- Afraid: emotion, think they are stupid (cognition), I will be (behavioral)
222
Theory of planned behavior
we consider the effects fo our actions **before we act**
223
Prototype willingness model (6 factors)
behavior is f(x) of
1. past behavior
2. attitudes
3. subjective norms
4. intentions
5. willingness to engage in behavior
6. prototyping: thinking of doing it before hand
224
Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (3 factors)
focuses on how/why of persuasion
1. message characteristics: message itself, clarity
2. source characteristics: what is messenger's level of expertise, truthworthiness
3. target characteristics: how susceptible listener is to be convinced, mood, self-esteem
225
2 ways persuasion is processed
Central: depends on the quality of argument made by the persuader
Peripheral: superficial/non-verbal persuasion cues (ie. body language)
226
Foot in door phenomenon
we have atendency to agree to small things first, then leads to us saying yes to bigger things
227
role-playing
picture yourself in a new role until you start to actually feel like yourself in the new role
228
Cognitive dissonance theory
2 or more conflicting cognitions
- feelings of discomfort cause us to alter our beliefs/values
To reduce discomfort:
1. modify cognitions: maybe I should change for the better
2. trivilaize: make less important (evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer)
3. add: adding excuses (I work out so it doesn't matter)
4. deny: denying facts (smoking and cancer are not linked)
229
What is a Schema
Interconnected mental network that internalizes info about the world
- big ideas -> create smaller ideas -> create smaller ideas
230
Psychoanalytic theory
personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts and past
- libido: motivation for survival
- death instinct: drives aggressive behaviors from unconscious wish to hurt others
231
- projection
- reaction formation
- regression
- sublimation
- projection: projecting feelings of inadequacy
- reaction formation: defense mechanism where someone does the opposite of what they want/feel (no, no I really like it when you do that)
- regression: def. mech. where someone regresses to childlike state
- sublimation: def. mech. where unwanted impulses are channeled into something positive
232
Id, Ego, Suprego
- Id: demands immediate gratification (I'd tap that)
- Ego: seeks long-term gratification
- Superego: moral conscious that weighs Id and Ego
233
Freudian slip
mental conflict
Ex.) financially stressed pt says "don't give me any bills, I mean pills"
234
Humanistic theory (Carl Rogers)
focuses on healthy personality development; humans are inherently good
- We are conscious, inherently good, and are self-motivated to improve
235
Biological theory
components of personality are inhereted by genes
236
Hans Eysenck's extroversion level
how ouotgoing we are is a f(x) of how easily aroused we are
- introverts are more easily aroused and therefore require less
- 3 dimensions of personality: extroversion, neuroticism (emotional stability), psychotism (how far reality is distorted)
237
social potency
degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations
238
Is followership genetic? (biological theory of behavior)
tendency to follow authority is common in twins
- therefore, genetic
239
temperment (biological theory of behavior)
innate disposition, our mood/activity level which is consistent throughout our life
240
Behaviorist theory
personality is a pattern of learned behavior patterns due to environment
- Essentially the result of conditioning
241
Pavlov's classical conditioning
place neutral stim. w/ unconditional stim. to trigger involuntary response
- ringing bell in presence of food causes dog to start salivating
242
Personality Trait theory
personality trait is a stable predisposition towards a certain behavior
- therefore person consistently behaves in certain ways
243
surface vs source traits
- surface traits: evident from a person's behavior
- source traits: factors underlying human personality
Think of the masks we wear around people, vs ourselves
- this is pretty much just front stage vs back stage
244
(Allport) cardinal, central, 2° traits
- cardinal: dominant traits, influence all our behaviors
- central: traits that are less dominant than cardinal (honesty, shyness)
- 2°: preferences and attitudes (love for modern art, eating meat)
245
Big 5 personality traits
1. openness (imagining vs practical)
2. conscientiousness (discipline vs impulse)
3. extroversion
4. agreeableness (apppreciative vs unfriendly)
5. neuroticism (emotionally stability)
OCEAN
246
social cognitive theory
Knowledge acquisition is the result of observing others
- social interactions, social media
247
4 factors for motivation
attnetion, memory, imitation, motivation
- AM I Motivated?
248
Biological basis of schizophrenia
abmormal perceptions of reality - hallucinations, delusions
- cerebral cortex is dec. in size
- disf(x)al parts of cerebral cortex
- abnormally large inc. of dopamine
249
biological basis of depression
feelings of hopelessness, loss of interest in activities
- dec. frontal lobe activity
- inc. activity of the limbic lobe
250
biological basis of Alzheimer's disease
loos of cognitive f(x)s, dec. in memory, normal motor f(x)s until later in the disease
251
Biological basis of Parkinson's disease
progressive neurological disorder involving motor abnormalities
- includes tremors, abnormal walking, and poor balance
- Loss of only dopaminergic neurons
252
conformity
peer pressure; tendency for people to bring behavior in line with group norms
253
Normative vs informative influence
1. informative influence: look to group for guidance when we don't know what to do
2. normative influence: even if you disagree, you do as the group says to avoid rejection
254
group polarization
decision-making amplifies the original group opinion
255
groupthink
maintaining harmony among group members is more important than careful analysis
256
anomie
breakdown of social bonds b/w an individual and community
257
internalization
idea/belief that has been integrated into our own values
258
Milgram experience
study of the willingness of participants
- average Americans obey authorities that conflict w/ their morals
259
just world phenomenon
good things happen to good people and vice-versa
260
self-serving bias
we will ∆ our perceptions to maintain our self-esteem
261
confabulation
creation of vivid but fake memories
262
fundamental attribution error
believe that a person's behavior is caused by their internal attributes, while ignoring their situational or social problems
263
Zimbardo prison study
absolute power corrupts absolutely
264
Factors that influence conformity (7)
1. group size
2. unanimity
3. group status
4. group cohesion
5. observed behavior
6. public response
7. internal factors
265
Bystander effect
when there are other people to help, no one takes action since they think someone else will
266
diffusion of responsibility
when people are around others, they feel less personal responsibilty (pretty much explains the bystander effect)
267
deindividuation
person is more likely to act out when their identity if concealed
- also conceals their personal responsibility
268
Social facilitation
the presence of others forces our dominant response to come out
- Ex.) if we practiced super hard for sth, then a crowd will lead us to perform well
- Also f(x)s for the reverse
269
social loafing
when we're in a group, we put forth less effort b/c our contributions aren't evaluated
270
agents of socialization
1. family
2. school
3. peers
4. mass media
271
norms (4)
standards of what we think is acceptable
1. folkways: manners we are supposed to follow (opening a door for someone)
2. mores: behaviors based on morals/beliefs (trustworthyness)
3. laws: based on right/wrong and has formal consequences
4. taboos: every culture finds these violations wrong
272
primary deviance
no big consequences to violating norms
- rxn to deviant behavior is mild
Ex.) lying about your GPA to someone
273
secondary deviance
serious consequences if norms are violated
- characterized by very negative rxn
274
social strain theory
How people react to constrains placed by society when they try to achieve goals
- person became the villain if pushed to deviancy
275
habituation
person tunes out the stimulus
276
sensitization
inc. responsiveness to a stimulus
277
dishabituation
when previously conditioned stimulus is removed
278
classical conditioning
learn to associate conditioned stimulus to a conditioned response
- ex.) condition a bell w/ presentation of food, so over the course fo time, you only need ring bell for dogs to begin salivating
279
generalization
stimulus similar to one that is conditioned leads to a conditioned response
280
shaping
successfully reinforce behaviors that lead to correct target behavior
281
schedules of reinforcement
- fixed-ratio
- fixed-interval
- variable-ratio
- variable-interval
- fixed ratio: reinforcement happens after **fixed # of responses** (5, 10, 15)
- fixed-interval: reinforcement happens after **same time b/w reinforcement**
- variable-ratio: reinforcement occurs after **varying # of responses** (3, 10, 14), Most powerful version (found in gambling)
- variable-interval: varying amount of **time b/w reinforcements**
282
Escape vs avoidance learning
escape: learn to get away from unpleasant stimulus
avoidance: learn to avoid stimulus altogether
283
reciprocol determinism
a person's behavior **influences and is influenced by** their env
284
internal vs external locus of control
internal: it's in my hands
external: it's in fate's hands
285
ego depletion
self-control is a limited resource
286
existential self
sense of being a distinct entity from others
287
cetegorical self
awareness that although we're seperate, we exist in the same world as others
288
social identity theory
we adopt identity of a group while also comparing ourselves w/ others in the group
289
Freud's psychosexual development
1.) Oral stage (0-1): activity centered around the mouth, develop sense of trust and comfort
* issues lead to **dependency or aggression**
2.) Anal stage (1-2): centered around anus and ability for someone to develop idependence
* issues can lead to **messiness**
3.) Phallic stage (3-6): kids learn diff b/w girls and boys, child starts to identify with same-sex parent
* issues can lead to **sexual dysf(x)**
4.) Latent period (6-12): energy spent towards intellectual pursuits, develop social skills
5.) Genital stage (puberty): focus on sexual desires and the needs of others
Old Age Parrots Love Grapes
290
Erikson's psychosocial development
1. (0-1) trust vs mistrust, if issue occurs here, learn to mistrust everyone; virtue is **hope**
2. (1-2) autonomy vs shame, kid learns independence; virtue is **independence**
3. (3-5) initiative vs guilt, kids learn to ask questions and play w/ others; virtue is **sense of purpose** in what they do and their choices
4. (6-12) industry vs inferiority, kid tries to develop competence but if it's stifled and they get no approval, then feels inferior; virtue is **self-reliance**
5. (12-18) identity vs role confusion, transition fromo child to adult and how you situate into society; virtue is **fidelity** (seeing ourselves as unique)
6. (20-40) intimacy vs isolation, try to find love in relationships; virtue is **comfort in relationships, **but *avoidance leads to issues w/ intimacy*
7. (40-65) generativity vs stagnantion, once we're settled down, families are @ the center of our lives, we are giving back to community; virtue is **belonging**
8. (65+) integrity vs despair, contemplate life and may feel guilt about the past; virtue is **wisdom**
291
Vygotsky sociocultural development
how does social interaction influence our cognition?
- social interactions b/w growing children and those around them lead to higher order learning
Higher order learning would be emotions, language
292
zone of proximal development
region where growing happens; b/w what we already can do vs what we can't do
- usually requires **more knowledgeable other**
293
Kohlberg Moral development
development of moral compass happens in stages
- **Pre-conventional** (pre-adolescent)
1.) obedianece vs punishment - reasoning based upon physcial consequences of actions
2.) Individualism and exchange - there isn't just 1 right view, people can have diff viewpoints
- **conventional** (adolescent)
3.) good boy/good girl - we conform for social praise
4.) Law and order - maintain social order w/ rules
- **post-conventional** (moral)
5.) social contract - there are times when rules are wrong
6.) universal ethical principle - people develop their own moral guidelines
294
social behaviorism
mind and sense of self emerge through communicating w/ others
- pretty much the looking-glass self
295
egocentrism
focus on our own world and don't care about other people
296
social behaviorism as a kid 3 stages
1.) perpatory stage: imitation
- imitate the behaviors of people we look up to
2.) play stage: become more aware of our social interactions
- shown when kids engage in pretend and act based on their perceived POV
- ex) playing as what they think a firefighter woudl be
3.) game stage: understand the attitudes/behaviors of others/society
297
socialization
process where people learn attidutdees, behaviors and values expected by their culture/community
298
looking glass self
person's sense of self is negatively affected by others
- Oh that person def thinks I'm weird (he doesn't even know you)
299
attribution theory
explain the behaviors of other people by...
1. using our knowledge to explain their behavior
2. analyzing factors in their env
When we analyze our own behaviors, we typically attribute our behavior to external factors
300
optimism bias
bad things happen to others but not us
- We are more likely to update a belief if info is positive
301
covariation model (3 components)
how we make inferences about why we and other people behave the way we do
1. consistency
2. distinctiveness
3. consensus
Ex.) flaky friend who cancels all the time. **Consistent** behavior over time.
Ex.) one day Jim goes off the rails and yells at us. He's usually level-headed so this is **distinct** behavior.
Ex.) If we arrive late to meeting, but so de 20 other people, then high degree of **consensus**.
302
Fundamental attribution error
we see other people doing things due to their internal attributes, but under-recognize their situation/social reality
- this is shown in the actor-observer bias
303
actor-observer bias
we are victims of circumstance, but other people do things b/c of who they are
- Example of fundamental attribution error
304
stereotype threat
self-evaluating fear that we will perform according to a negative stereotype
305
frustration-aggression hypothesis
frustration can lead to prejudice
- especially common for people who are deprived
306
social vs self-stigma
social stigma: extreme diaspproval of individual by society
self stigma: individual can internalize their negative stereotypes
307
primacy vs recency bias
**primacy bias**: emphasis placed on 1st actions/performances (ex. first impressions)
**recency bias**: emphasis based on recent actions/performances (ex. but what have you done for me lately?)
308
Halo effect and reverse-halo effect
halo effect: 1 trait is being used to judge a whole person
- physicla ttractiveness stereotype - believe attractive people have more positive traits
reverse halo effect: we take 1 judgement about someone and apply it to their whole personality (hallo effect but negative)
- ex.) woman who cuts me off while driving must be a terribel driver and a bad mother
309
people interpret sound in the Left or Right brain?
Most people conduct language comprehension and pdn in the LEFT brain
310
Ethnocentrism vs cultural relativism
**Ethnocentrism**: judging someone else's culture through the lens of your own
**cultural relativism**: judge and understand a culture from w/in that culture
311
in vs out group
in group - who we are connected w/
out group - group we're not associated w/
312
group favoritism vs out group derogation
group favoritism: we favor people in our own group but are **neutral** towards outsiders
out group derogation: only like our group and **discriminate** against outsiders
313
mere exposure effect
repeated exposure to novel people inc. our liking of them
314
perceived similarity
over time hanging out w/ someone, our interests become more aligned
315
similarity bias vs projection bias
**similarity bias**: we won’t befriend people who are diff from us
**projection bias**: assume everyone shares the same beliefs as us
316
false consensus
assume everyone agrees w/ us even if they don't
317
Harlow monkey experiment
found that monkey babies will forgo even food over comfort
- preferred the embrace of a cloth sillhouette of a mother over chicken-wire b/c it provided greater comfort
- when they were coddled by the cloth mother they still attemped to stay in the embrace and feed from a bottle
- showed they were unwilling to part from the "mother"
318
Mary Ainsworth strange situation theory of children
- **secure** children were okay to explore when parent was in the room but when parent left, they were distressed, butt were calmed down when parent returned
- **insecure** children clinged to mother thorughout the experiment and didn't explore; when mother left, they freaked out and it didn't get better wven when she came back
- **avoidant** children ignored mother @ all times (yeesh)
319
reinforcement modeling
agression can be the result of positive reinforcement
- if a child throws a tantrum and then gets what they want, then they will continue to throw tantrums
320
deindividuatiion
loss of individuality and personal responsibility when you become part of a group
321
kin selection
people act more altruistically to people they're related to
322
cost signalling
people are more likely to trust people that have helped others in the past
323
ascribed vs achieved status
ascribed status: status you can't ∆ from birth
achieved status: status you earn/achieve for yourself
324
role strain
cannot carry all obligations that are inhehrent in 1 status
325
front stage vs back stage
front stage: hwo people are ina social setting, around others
- people ∆ how they are seen in order to make friends
back stage: how people are in their private lives
- where we actually feel like ourselves
326
impression management
how we balance all our front stages
327
prejudice vs discrimination
prejudice: attitudes
discimination: diff treatment (action)
328
Diff types of organizations (3)
1. utilitarian organization: members are paid/rewarded for their efforts
2. Normative organizations: members come together through their shared goals (not paid or monetarily compensated)
3. Coercive organization: members don't have a choice about membership (prison)
329
iron rule of oligarchy
even the most democratic organizations will eventually become a bureaucracy ruled by a few
- this is b/c people in power don't want to give it up
330
McDonaldization
principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability and contol will dominate eth
331
5 components of bureaucracy
1. **division of labor**: people are trained too do specific things (but begin to become disconnected from the product)
2. **heirarchy of organization**: people are supervised (can deprive people of decision making)
3. **written rules and regulations**: people have clear rules to abide by (stifles creativity)
4. **impersonality**: peope do thir jobs in an unbiased manner (discourages loyalty)
5. **merit-based employment**: hiring is based on ability (can cause people to not be ambitious since they'll only remain where they're competent)
332
mating strategies (3 types)
1. random mating w/ no preferences
2. assortative mating (similarity mating) where individuals w/ similar traits end up mating together
3. non-assortative mating (opposites attract) where individuals mate w/ those who have diverse traits
333
evolutionary game theory
those w/ best fit to env will survive to pass on genes/behavior to offspring
334
macrosociology
large scale persepective emphasizing big phenomena affect a big portion of pop
335
microsociology
face-to-face intxns
- analysis of society where you look at how individual intxns affect larger groups
336
hidden curriculum
we learn how to stand in line, wait our turn, treat our peers
- essentially learn how to obey rules
- We begin to internalize social inequalities, esp how girls and boys are treated diff
337
Religious organizations by size (3)
1. **ecclesia**: dominant religion that is followed by the majority of population
2. **sects**: smaller religious groups made in protest of larger group (ex. early Lutherans)
3. **cults**: small and radical groups that reject outside society
338
medicalization
conditions that were considered normal are now seen as medical conditions
339
sick role
expectation that society will allow us to take a break from our responsibilities when we get sick
340
Functionalism
Look at society from a large-scale perspective and how each part helps t keep society stable
- society is always heading to equilibrium
- ∆ to pdn will force us to shift and adapt, but we will find new equilibrium
Social ∆ threatens equilibrium which is why there is resistance, which is why institutions eventually ∆ to maintain their interdependence
Small societies are held together by their similarities, big societies allow people to become interdependent
341
social facts
ways of thinking that are formed by society
- existed before us and will exist after us
342
conflict theory
inequalities exist due to differences in power held by diff social groups
- **thesis**: how things are; maintained by people in power
- **antithesis**: how people want to ∆ the way things are; held by those being oppressed
struggle b/w thesis and antithesis leads to compromise and **synthesis** of a new state
343
weak vs strong social construcitonism
weak social constructionism: things exist b/c they are, regardless of our acknowledgement
- weakly agree w/ social constructionism
strong social constructionism: reality is due to our shared acknowledgement that it is real
- based upon our language and social habits
344
symbolic interactionism
focus on small interxns b/w individuals
- soceity is made up of the typical everyday intxns b/w people
Meaning is a huge part of how people live and interact
- we give meaning to things and act specially towards those thhings
345
3 tenents of symbolic intractionism
1. we act based upon meaning we've given to sth
2. diff people assign diff meanings to things
3. meaning we give to sth isn't permanent
346
feminist theory
looks @ women's social role sin educaiton, family, workforce
- women face discrimination, objectification, oppression, stereotyping
347
rational choice theory
eth somebody does is due to them being ***fundamentally rational*** and they weigh **costs and benefits**
- people act in self-interest and do things to meet their goals
348
Exchange theory
applying rational choice theory to social intxns
- intxns are based on people weighing rewards and punishments of ea action
- behavior can be understood w/in intxn when you understand that people will try to maximize their profits/rewards
349
Social theories overview
- functionalism
- conflict theory
- social constructionism
- symbolic interactionism
- feminist theory
- rational choice theory
- exchange theory
- functionalism: society exists over time b/c it always tries to maintain equilibrium, institutions remain constant (eth has a f(x) in society)
- conflict theory: how societies ∆ over time through conflict b/w thesis and antithesis
- social constructionism: society exists b/c of the collective mind of society; things have value b/c society agrees it has value
- symbolic interactionism: emphasis on individual and how they behave; things have meaning b/c people give meaning to things
- feminist theory: focus on gender inequalities brought about by evil men
- rational choice theory: people always take rational actions, weighing cost and benefit of ea action
- exchange theory: applying RCT to interactions (family, work, etc); people behave to maximize their rewards
350
life-course theory
aging is a predictable social, psychological, and biological process that begins from birth and ends @ death
351
age stratification theory
age is a way of regulating behavior of a generation
352
continuity theory
people try to maintain same basic structure through their lives
353
Race vs ethnicity
Race: socially determined category based on physical differences
Ethnicity: socially determined category base don diff in cultures/languages/religion/nationality
- pluralism encourages multiple racial and ethnic variations
354
assimilation
person's culture comes to resemble that of another group
355
cognitive schema
pattern of thought that organizes categories of info and relationships b/w them
- allows us to set expectations about ourselves and others
356
gender script
info regarding how we're supposed to act based on our gender
357
gentrifictation
1. rich people move in to poor neighborhood
2. investment in the property will up their property value
3. eventually poor people cannot afford to live there so they have to end up moving
358
5 stages of demographic transition
1. high birth rates & high death rates
2. advancement in tech allows for death rates to dec.
3. birth rates begin to decline b/c having many children doesn't give huge benefit
4. population stabilizes
5. this model occurs everywhere causing the world population to stabilize
359
globalization
Exchanging of culture, money, products b/w countries
- no country is ever fully independent
360
World-systems theory
- core: USA and West Europe (completely autonomous)
- periphery: Latin america and Africa (poor states)
- semi-periphery: East Europe, India (semi autonomous)
361
Modernization theory
all countries follow a similar path of dev into modern society
362
mass society theory
skepticism about groups
- they only form b/c people seek refuge from main society
363
relative deprivation theory
people form groups b/c they are deprived of certain rights that others enjoy
364
3 components needed for social movement
1. relative deprivation
2. people think they deserve better
3. conventional methods of improvement are useless
365
resource mobilization theory
focus on how factors can help/hinder a social movement
- what people need to get a social revolution going: money, media, pol. influence
366
what is culture?
way of life shared by a group of individuals consisting of shared beliefs and values
- also provide rules and instructions w/in a society that teach people how to live
- ideas are ttransmissable b/w generations
367
subculture
community that distinguishes itself from main society
- just large enough to support someone for their whole life
- ex.) Mormons
368
microculture
very small, niche community
- not large enough to support someone their whole life, so it's only a temporary part of their life
- ex.) Furries
369
Caste system
very llittle social mobility
- you are born into your social station
370
class system
some degree of social mobility
- movement is often the result of education
371
meritocracy
social position is due only to ability and achievement
372
absolute poverty
absolute level of financial power, where going below it will threaten your survival
373
relative poverty
% below the median income of a country
- you are poor in the USA but rich in Africa
374
social reproduction
genrational social/financial status gets transmitted to subsequent generations
375
social vs cultural capital
- social capital: building of reliable social networks
- cultural capital: knowledge, education and skills that you have independent of social groups (street smarts)
376
index of dissimilarity
0 is total segregation, 100 is perfect integration
377
3 issues that arise from residential segregation
1. political isolaiton: segregated communities have ittle political power
2. linguistic segregation: isolated communitties develop their own means of communication/slang
3. spatial mismatch: opportunities for poor people in segregated communities are away from people who need them
378
class consciousness
workers realize they have solidarity w/ ea other
379
false consciousness
workers don't recognize their collective power, while also not understanding that they're oppressed
380
cross-sectional study
looks @ diff group of people @ the same time
381
cohort study
follow a cohort (group of people w/ similar characteristic) over their lifetimes
- people exposed to same drug, mutation
382
longitudinal study
data gathered from same subjects repeatedly over a period of time
383
case-control study
2 groups of differing outcomes are analyzed to find a causal factor
384
clinical trial
highly controlled study where effects of medical or behavioral interventions are studied
385
randomized controlled trial
people studied randomly are given a treatment (1 w/ treatment and 1 with placebo) to see if treatment has any effect
386
neural plasticity
ability of the nervous system to modify itself f(x)ly and structurally in response to exp or injury
387
Hawthorne effect
participants will ∆ behavior when they know they're being observed
388
self-serving bias
our success is due to innate characteristics, but failure is due to situation
