P/S Flashcards
Acetylcholine
- Usually excitatory (always excitatory in the musculoskeletal system)
- FN: Motor movement, cognitive function
- location: CNS; PNS
- Alzheimer’s disease
Norepinephrine
- Excitatory
- FN: “Fight or Flight” response
- Location: CNS; PNS
- Depressed mood
Dopamine
- Excitatory or inhibitory
- FN: Happiness, motor movement, alertness, learning, emotion
- Location: CNS; PNS
- Parkinson’s disease
Serotonin
- Inhibitory
- FN: Sleep, appetite, mood regulation, arousal
- Location: CNS
- Mood disorders (e.g. depressive disorders)
Glutamate
- Always excitatory (key excitatory neurotransmitter of CNS)
- FN: Stimulates the brain
- Location: CNS
- Lack of focus or motivation
GABA
-Always inhibitory (key inhibitory neurotransmitter of CNS)
-FN: Calms the brain
-Location: CNS
Anxiety, seizures
Endorphins
- Inhibitory; provides pain releif
- FN: Pain relief
- Location: CNS
- Pain
How neurotransmitters function in relation to membrane potential
Neurotransmitters exit via exocytosis from the presynaptic terminal, travel across the synaptic cleft, and then bind to receptors on the target cell where they induce changes in the neuronal membrane’s permeability to ions
- Excitatory = more likely to fire an AP
- Inhibitory = less likely to fire an AP
Cerebrum
Forebrain
Problem-solving and learning, emotions, coordination of movement
Thalamus
Forebrain
Sensory relay station; processes and conveys all sensory information except for odor (smell)
Hypothalamus
Forebrain
Controls appetite, moderates body temperature, secretes hormones
Superior colliculi
Midbrain
Receive and process visual information
Inferior colliculi
Midbrain
Receive and process auditory information
Cerebellum
Hindbrain
Coordinates movement, posture, and balance
Pons
Hindbrain
Bridge between cerebellum and forebrain
Medulla oblongata
Hindbrain
Regulate cardiovascular system (breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, etc.)
cerebral cortex
- Outermost part of the cerebrum
- Responsible for many of our higher cognitive functions
- Rich with the cell bodies, or soma, of neurons. These neurons have long axons that extend through the brain and into the spinal cord.
- 4 major lobes
Four lobes of the cerebral cortex
Frontal lobe: governs executive function, initiates voluntary motor movement, and is responsible for producing speech. Broca’s area is on left side of frontal lobe.
Parietal lobe: governs spatial processing, proprioception, and somatosensation.
Occipital lobe: governs visual processing.
Temporal lobe- governs learning, memory, speech perception, and auditory perception. Wernicke’s area is located here.
To explain the demographic dynamics in the passage, a conflict theorist is most likely to consider the relationship among which factors?
Generational status, political power, and resource allocation
- The sociological paradigm of conflict theory broadly calls attention to competition among social groups, including generational conflict. Given the demographic dynamics raised in the passage, it is likely that competition over resources will emerge between the old and the young (for example, public support of health care versus education, each of which tends to benefit one age group more than the other). A conflict theorist would be interested in explaining how political power varies by generational status and thus affects the allocation of social resources.
The aging of the U.S. population is most likely to increase:
the dependency ratio
The dependency ratio is a ratio of the number of economically dependent members of the population to the number of economically productive members. The economically dependent are those considered too young or too old to work, whereas the economically productive are the working-age population (approximately between the ages of 18 and 65).
The linguistic relativity hypothesis
(Weak) suggests that human cognition is affected by language
- more relevant = more easy to comprehend
ex) Humans are better at distinguishing colors for which their language has a name.
(Strong) language determines thought, and that linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories, whereas the weak version says that linguistic categories and usage only influence thought and certain kinds of non-linguistic behavior
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
the grammatical structure of a person’s language influences the way he or she perceives the world
Source monitoring error
A type of memory error where the source of a memory is incorrectly attributed. Often due to limited encoding of source information. Memory construction can follow leading to a false memory.
- the older the memory, the more likely the source will be mixed up
Dissociative disorder
Disruptions in awareness, memory, and identity that are extreme or frequent enough that they cause distress or impair the person’s functioning.
- Dissociative disorders can be triggered by severe stress or psychological conflicts and they usually begin and end suddenly
Dissociative amnesia
Suddenly forgetting some important personal information. Usually caused by severe stress or trauma. The disorder usually ends suddenly, with full recovery of memory.
Conversion disorder
A somatoform disorder where a person experiences a change in sensory motor function that has no physical or physiological cause, but seems affected by psychological factors.
Operant conditioning
associate a voluntary behavior and a consequence
hungry -> press button -> food
Classical conditioning
associate an involuntary response and a stimulus
hears bell -> knows it’s time for food -> hungry
meritocracy
assumes that opportunity is based on a combination of talent and effort
Socialization
he process through which people learn to be proficient and functional members of society. It is a lifelong sociological process where people learn the attitudes, values, and beliefs that are reinforced by a particular culture.
Cultural capital
knowledge that doesn’t have a direct payoff in doing job, but knowledge that helps you in social world (ex. Golf, a lot of business done playing golf. ex. Knowing right kind of wine. ex. Knowing right kind of clothing.)
The education and skills a person has that allow for social mobility. The non- financial social assets that promote social mobility. Cultural capital is not transmissible.
Marginal poverty
A state of poverty that occurs when a person lacks stable employment
Structural Poverty
Poverty due to defect in economic structure
socioeconomic gradient in health
the graded relationship between social class and health, in which each “step” up on the hierarchy of social stratification tends to be associated with better health
fundamental attribution error
stressing the importance of dispositional (i.e., personality) factors in one’s explanations of other people’s behavior and underemphasizing situational factors
Schemas
Mental frameworks about how the world works. These mental frameworks shape our experience of the world and are themselves shaped by experience.
- help make decisions quickly (top-down processing)
Components of attitudes
affective, behavioral and cognitive
A- feelings/emotions
B- actions toward a person/situation
c- beliefs and knowledge about the person/situation
Social desirability bias
The tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that looks favorably for others. This can result in an over-reporting of good answers and an under-reporting of bad answers.
Selection bias
The bias introduced by the selection of individuals, groups, or data for analysis in such a way that randomization is not achieved. This ensures that the sample is not representative of the population intended to be analyzed.
Causation bias
The tendency to assume a cause and effect relationship
Projection Bias
When we assume other people share the same beliefs we do
False consensus bias
When we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they don’t.
subject bias
When a subject intentionally or unintentionally reports distorted measurements
observer bias
When an observer intentionally or unintentionally reports distorted measurements
Primary group vs. Secondary Group
Primary group – stronger bonds, important to members, usually smaller and include people the individual engages with in a long-term emotional way. Serve expressive functions (meeting emotional needs).
Secondary group – Larger and more impersonal. May interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time. Serve instrumental functions (meeting pragmatic needs).
In-Group vs. Out-Group
In-Group: group that an individual belongs to
Out-Group: group that individual doesn’t belong to
Front-stage versus back-stage presentations
Front stage – When in the presence of others, it is the act we play to craft the way we come off to other people.
Back stage – When not in the presence of others we let our guards down and be our true selves.
Psychoactive drug with lowest risk of dependence
Hallucinogens
conflict theory
Views society as a competition with limited resources; most often associated with class-based conceptions of inequality (right get richer)
Thus, social stratification is the concept that a conflict theorist would suggest is most relevant to explaining access disparities
Racialization
you ascribe racial identities to a group that doesn’t agree with that label
Socialization
the lifelong process through which a person becomes an active participant in their culture, defined by language, customs, and values
- tied to development of self-identity
Agents of socialization
Social entities that impart values, beliefs, and social norms
- four Agents of Socialization, which is easy: family, school, peers, and media
Gentrification
Lower cost, lower income neighborhoods are taken over by those with higher income, which raises real estate prices and rents and forces many of the previous residents out
- can also forces existing businesses out and sees them replaced by higher end and/or chains.
Agonist with dose-dependent effects
a positive correlation between the dose and the intensity of euphoria experienced is most likely
Prejudice vs discrimination
prejudice- biased attitude potentially based on a stereotype
discrimination- differential treatment or behavior
Confounding variable
factors other than the independent variables that researchers failed to control and would have an impact on the dependent variable
- damage the internal validity of the experiment.
Individuals vs. Groups
- Social loafing refers to the fact that people are more productive alone than in a group
- Research also suggests that individuals are less critical and less creative in groups
- Groupthink: groups produce less quality solutions and do not critically evaluate ideas
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
1) Sensorimotor stage (Birth- age 2): Experience the world through their senses and movement. Learn about object permanence.
2) Preoperational stage (Age 2 – 7): Learn that things can be represented through symbols such as words and images. But still lack logical reasoning.
3) Concrete Operational Stage (Age 7-11): Start to think logically. An example is understanding the principle of conservation (the idea that quantity remains the same despite change in shape).
4) Formal operational Stage (Age 12+): Learn abstract reasoning and moral reasoning.
“Some People Can Fly”
Limbic system
A collection of brain structures that are primarily responsible for emotion. Involves the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex.
amygdala
acts as the hub for emotion
hypothalamus
controls the physiological aspects of emotion
prefrontal cortex
involved in the behavioral response
hippocampus
plays a role in forming memories
Emotion consists of three components:
1) Physiological (body): Activation of the autonomic nervous system
2) Cognitive (mind): Personal assessment of the situation
3) Behavioral (action): Urges to act in a certain way
Yerkes-Dodson law
People perform best when they are moderately aroused
James-Lange theory of emotion
Physiological and behavioral response to a stimuli lead to the cognitive aspect of emotion.
- Automatic physiological & behavior response lead to cognitive understanding of emotion
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
Physiological and cognitive responses lead to a behavioral response
- Physiological and cognitive appraisal occur simultaneously, leading to behavioral response.
Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
Physiological response leads to a conscious cognitive interpretation that leads to a behavioral response and labelling of the emotion.
- Physiological response causes conscious cognitive interpretation, which leads to the behavioral response and labelling of emotion
Erik Erikson’s developmental stages:
1) Trust vs mistrust (Birth – Age 1): (Ability to trust)
2) Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1 -3 yr): Explore, make mistakes, test limits. (Ability to
self-care)
3) Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yr): Make decisions. (Ability to carry out a plan)
4) Industry vs inferiority (6-12 yr): Attain personal goals and knowing one’s own ability to
succeed (Ability to learn a new task)
5) Identity vs role confusion (12-18 yr): Identity, life meaning (Stable identity formation)
6) Intimacy vs isolation (18-35 yr): Form intimate relationships (Ability to form relationship
with others)
7) Generativity vs stagnation (35-60 yr): Help next generation, understand one’s
accomplishments (ability to put energy into others)
8) Integrity vs despair (60+): Look back with no regrets and feel personal worth
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
The stages of development are characterized by impulses of the id and the overcoming of these impulses.
There are five stages: Oral stage (1st year) – Requires development of trust and the capacity of delayed gratification. Child seeks sensual pleasure through oral activities (sucking and chewing)
Anal stage (2nd year) – Toilet training. Allows the development of self-control. Child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination
Phallic stage (3- 6 years) – Gender and sexual identification. Child seeks sensual pleasure through genitals. Sexually attracted to the opposite sex parent and hostile toward same-sex parent at this stage. Internalization of society’s rules and development of superego occur.
- Oedipus complex – Occurs in a boy (jealous of dad, attracted to mom)
- Electra complex – Occurs in a girl (jealous of mom, attracted to dad)
- If a child does not resolve that stage’s developmental conflicts. A child becomes psychologically fixated at that stage and as an adult continue to seek pleasure through behaviors related to that stage.
16
Latent stage (7-12 years) – Social development and suppression of sexual impulses. Allows children to focus on other developmental tasks. Genital (Adolescence) – Mature sexuality and the return of sexual impulses.
“Old Ass People Love Grandchildren”
Response bias
The tendency for an individual to answer questions on a survey untruthfully or misleadingly. This is because of pressure to give answers that are socially acceptable
Hindsight bias
when an individual or group believes that they knew something was going to occur when in reality there is no way that they could have made that prediction
Selv-Serving Bias vs. Fundamental Attribution Error
Self Serving: Environment causes our failure, Self causes our success.
- we do something awesome, its because we are awesome. If something bad happens to us, it’s because the world sucks but not us
Attribution error: Environment causes their success, self causes their failure.
- If someone else does something terrible, we think it is because they suck; it’s not their situation controlling them. (Disposition over situational)
Sides of the brain functions
Left: controls right side of body; performs tasks relating to logic, language, reasoning
Right: controls left side of body; performs tasks relating to art, imagination, emotions, visuospatial skills, and creativity
Interference
When people study new material, any new information introduced between the initial learning (i.e., encoding) and retrieval, such as viewing a movie, will interfere with memory consolidation
ex) study then watch a movie before bed- less likely to remember content studied due to movie
High emotional intellegence
People with high emotional intelligence are able to control their impulses and have lots of self control. They are not swayed easily by fluctuating emotions and are able to keep composures, etc.
sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
Analytical: “academics”, so like recollection and application of previously learned info, problem solving, analyzing and evaluating ideas
Creative: generating new ideas and approaches
Practical: ability to adapt to new situations
gardner’s multiple intelligence
Types don’t depend on each other and hence intelligence in 1 area does not predict intelligence in another; logical-mathematical intelligence verbal-linguistic spatial-visual bodily-kinesthetic interpersonal intrapersonal musical
Later 2 added: naturalist, and existential intelligence
Kohlberg
- Pre-Conventional (pre-adolescent)
- Obedience vs. Punishment: reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules is a means to avoid punishment.
- Individualism and Exchange: recognize not just one right view by authorities, different individuals have different viewpoints. - Conventional
- Good Boy and Good Girl: Authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on group person belongs. Individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, emphasis on conformity.
- Law and Order: maintaining social order, child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws. - Post-Conventional (moral)
- Social Contract: Individual becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for greater good, there are times this law works against interest of particular people.
• Ex. for Heinz, is protection of life more important than breaking/stealing? People at this stage said yes.
- Universal Ethical Principle: people develop own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law, and principles apply to everyone. People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences. Very few people who reach this stage, ex. Ghandi.
“POS, CCL, PCU”
Pre-Conventional (Obedience, Selfishness)
Conventional (Conformity, Law and Order)
Post Conventional (Contract (like social contract), and Universal ethics)
thurnstones 7 intelligences
7 factors of intelligence: word fluency verbal comprehension spatial reasoning perceptual speed numerical ability inductive reasoning memory
Broadbent’s Early Selection Theory
- All info in environment goes into sensory register, then gets transferred to selective filter right away which filters out stuff in unattended ear and what you don’t need to understand it (accents etc.), and finally perceptual processes identifies friend’s voice and assigns meaning to words. Then you can engage in other cognitive processes.
• Some problems – if you completely filter out unattended info, shouldn’t identify your own name in unidentified ear. Cocktail party effect.
Deutch & Deutch’s Late Selection Theory
Places broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. Selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness.
But given limited resources and attention, seems wasteful to spend all that time assigning meaning to things first.
Treisman’s Attenuation Theory
Instead of complete selective filter, have an attenuator – weakens but doesn’t eliminate input from unattended ear. Then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. Then switch if something important.
Spearman’s idea of general intelligence
single g factor responsible for intelligence that underlies performance on all cognitive tasks
2 types of aversive control (situations where behavior is motivated by threat of something unpleasant)
- type of negative reinforcement (removing undesirable stimulus following correct behavior)
- operant conditioning
Escape learning: escape an unpleasant stimulus ex. fire, element of surprise because you’re thrown in condition where you have to find way to get out
Avoidance learning: avoid fire before it arrives
Physiology of Alzheimer’s disease
primarily beta-amyloid plaques and NFT building up in the soma and axons/dendrites of neurons, respectively
Steps of Classical Conditioning
- Acquisition: CS + UCR = increase CR strength
- Extinction: CS alone= decrease in CR strength
- Spontaneous Recovery: CS alone; extinguished CR reappears after a rest period = less CR strength, declines
Independent variable vs. Dependent variable on graph
Independent variable (what changes, NOT what’s being measured) is on X-axis
Dependent variable (not changed, what IS being tested) is on Y-axis
Biological basis of Alzheimer’s
• Brain tissue atrophy
- Cerebrum often dramatically decreases in size. Severity of atrophy correlates with severity of dementia.
- Starts in temporal lobes, important for memory.
- Later, atrophy spreads to parietal and frontal lobes. Many other cognitive functions.
• 3 main abnormalities:
- loss of neurons
- increased beta-amyloid plaques (occur in spaces between cells, outside of neurons in abnormal clumps)
- neurofibrillary tangles (clumps of a protein tau. Located inside neurons. Develop proteins normally in the brain, but changed so it’s abnormal and causes them to clump together)
• Nucleus basalis (group of neurons at base of cerebrum) is often lost early in Alzheimer’s.
- Important for cognitive functions – send long axons to cerebral cortex and through cerebrum and release acetylcholine.
- Contribute to cognitive functions of disease
• Synapses appear to not function clearly long before disease.
Study Types
• Cross-sectional study: categorize patients into different groups at a single time point and determine prevalence of a disease/disorder and whether or not that was affected by risk factors
- Question: given factor Y, what is the risk of disease X?
• Cohort study: sort patients into groups based on risk factors and then follow them to see if they have a certain outcome
- type of longitudinal study
- A retrospective cohort design looks back at events that have already taken place
- A prospective cohort design follows a group of individuals over a period of time
• Longitudinal study: follows variables over a long period of time to look for correlations
• Case-control study: Sample from population of patients with disease X= cases. Sample from another population of people who DO NOT have disease X, but are similar to the patients with the disease (similar age, ethnicity, education, etc) = controls
- Question: given you have disease X, what are the odds of having been exposed to factor Y compared to the odds of being exposed to factor Y if you didn’t have disease X.
• Clinical trial: highly controlled interventional studies
• Randomized Controlled Trial: people studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test efficacy/side effects of medical interventions like drugs.
- Gold standard for a clinical trial.
- Experimental Study: have a control that allows you to measure the change in one variable in relation to another (correlation is rarely the causation) There are a set of independent variables that is hypothesized to influence the hypothesis
- Correlational study: attempts to determine if there is simply a relationship between two variables
CBT
CBT first addresses maladaptive behaviors through behavior therapy to systematically modify a person’s behavior. This is followed by sessions designed to foster cognitive change, through self-assessments.
sociological paradigm of functionalism
makes a distinction between manifest, or intended, and latent, or unintended, functions of social activities
Functionalism
looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning
- says that society is heading towards equilibrium
- almost all social actions have both manifest functions and latent functions, both of which are connected to overall social stability
structural functionalism
a broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole
EX) How would a structural functionalist interpret the efficacy of yoga as part of a smoking cessation therapy?
The utility of yoga as an effective smoking cessation therapy is an unintended, though beneficial, outcome of a yoga practice.
- the expected function of yoga is not specifically smoking cessation, its utility as a cessation therapy is a latent function of the social activity
Symbolic Interactionism
society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals. Looking at how people behave in normal everyday situations and helps us to better understand and define deviance
Views of Deviance
Differential association: deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws – learn from observation of others. Rejects norms/values and believes new behavior as norm.
Labeling theory: a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. Depends on what’s acceptable in that society.
- Primary (minor) and secondary (serious)
Strain Theory: if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance. Individuals in a group are pushed to attain certain goals, but may not have means or legitimate ways to achieve success. Society values a certain behavior but the opportunity to be successful is not made available to everyone. The lack of equal opportunity results in increased access to illegal means to achieve success.
Medicalization of a behavior
both the definition of the problem and the therapy intended to improve it are couched in medical terms
negative correlation
-1 is the strongest negative relationship
as one variable increases, there is an associated decrease in another variable
positive correlation
+1 is the strongest positive relationship
as one variable increases, the other also increases.
Hawthorne effect
The Hawthorne effect (also referred to as the observer effect) is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed
Thomas Theorem
the interpretation of a situation causes the action
horizontal mobility
an individual changes some aspect of social identity (from employed to unemployed, for example) but maintains the same relative status (income remains the same)
Ex) Accountant switches job to different accounting company.
Vertical mobility
move up or down the social hierarchy.
Ex) Manager at restaurant becomes CEO of fast food restaurant. But if he gets demoted to serving food, fall downwards.
Positive punisher
adds something (ex. anxiety attacks) that decreases a behavior
Negative punisher
takes away something that causes a decrease in behavior
Discriminatory stimulus
indicates that reward is potentially available
Ex) dolphin gets excited at sight of dolphin trainer because the trainer’s presence could indicate food
Signaling stimulus
neutral stimuli (do not produce a reflexive response) that have the potential to be used as conditioning stimuli
autonomic nervous system
in control of the physiological signs of arousal
reticular activation system
has to do with alertness/awakeness on a cognitive level
limbic system
set of structures in the brain that deal with emotions and memory. It regulates autonomic or endocrine function in response to emotional stimuli and also is involved in reinforcing behavior
Cognitive process
your way of thinking/how you thought about a situation
Affective process
your feelings towards a situation (think affection).
Physiological process
is like increase in HR, sweating, stuff like that.
Top-down processing
using your background knowledge to make inferences about a situation.
limitations on experimental research
experimental methods in such studies is the difficulty of systematically manipulating participants’ physiological states and their sensitivity to changes in those states
hair cells of the cochlea are . . .
specialized mechanoreceptors
- depolarized by opening mechanically gated ion channels
habituation
reduced responding to a repeating stimulus
electrical conductivity of the skin
a physiological indication of increased sympathetic arousal, which is associated with anxiety
Multiple Approach-Avoidance
the internal mental debate (conflict) that weighs the pros and cons of differing situations that have both good and
bad elements. The name comes from visualizing yourself approaching and avoiding
Approach-approach conflicts
two options are both appealing.
• consist of t
Avoidant-avoidant conflicts
both options are unappealing
approach-avoidance conflict
one option has both aspects, but here there
are two options.
Double approach-avoidant conflicts
two options with both appealing and negative characteristics
- represent the jury’s dilemma. If they ruled the defendant guilty, then they could be punishing a criminal(approach) or maybe punishing an innocent(avoidant). If they ruled the defendant innocent, then they would be letting a criminal walk away unpunished(avoidant) or freeing an innocent (approach).
Emotional support
affection, love, trust, caring. The type that involves listening and emphasizing. Can include physical support (hugs/pats on back). Provided by those closest to you (family/close friends)
Esteem support
expressions of confidence/encouragement. Things people say to let you know they belief in you. Can come from family+ friends but also therapists, teachers, coaches.
Informational support
sharing information with us or giving us advice. Can come from family/friends or even articles online.
Tangible/Instrumental support
financial assistance/support, material goods, or services. Taking some of your responsibilities so you can deal with other problems. Can come from a bank, people who bring you dinner when you’re sick, or lend you money between jobs.
Companionship support
the type that gives someone sense of social belonging. Companionship while you engage in an activity.
Social Capital
the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively.
poverty magnet
can drag people away from the core part of society, and experience a greater degree of social exclusion
ill heath magnet
can drag people away from the core part of society can’t participate in society
the discrimination magnet
Certain groups may face discrimination, based on their race/gender/sexual
orientation/etc
Content Analysis
is a sociological method that is used to make inferences about communication
Network analysis
Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of network and graph theories
Participant observation
In participant observation the observer participates in ongoing activities and records observations. Participant observation extends beyond naturalistic
observation because the observer is a “player” in the action.
Assimilation
related to the process of social integration and generally refers to when new members adopt the main elements of a culture
- aspects of the definition of assimilation (cultural adaptation, adopting new norms, and relinquishing old norms
Weber’s Law
- 2 vs. 2.05 lb weight feel the same.
- 2 vs. 2.2 lb weight difference would be noticeable.
• The threshold at which you’re able to notice a change in any sensation is the just noticeable difference (JND)
I = initial intensity of stimulus, ΔI = JND.
• Thus, Weber’s Law is:
o ΔI (JND)/I (initial intensity) = k (constant)
o ex. 0.2/2 = 0.5/5 = 0.1, change must be 0.1 of initial intensity to be noticeable
• If we take Weber’s Law and rearrange it, we can see that it predicts a linear relationship
between incremental threshold and background intensit
capacity of working memory
between 5 and 9 items.
The so-called “magic number 7 ± 2” was the name George Miller (1956) gave to this estimate.
procedural memory
refers to memory for the performance of particular types of action
Role strain
the tension that results from competing demands within the context of a single role
larger groups are _____ than smaller groups
more stable but less intimate
Ethnographic methods
involving systematic observation of a complete social environment
exchange theory
behavior of individual in interaction can be figured out by comparing rewards and punishments.
- Rewards: can be social approval, money gifts, and positive gestures (a smile).
- Punishments: negative gestures, social disapproval, public humiliation
