overview of pet bird Flashcards
play a major role in pet bird wellness programs.
Nutrition and behavior
what are those entails in Preventing disease
- providing a proper diet,
- an appropriate size cage and perches,
- proper sanitation, and
- environmental enrichment (ie, toys, foraging opportunities, social interaction).
oxygen deprivation can occur during?
restraint, treatment, or diagnostic sampling.
are more common in birds without recent exposure to potentially infectious birds
Chronic malnutrition and secondary infections
is a major cause of subclinical disease in birds, which often becomes clinical when a secondary infection occurs.
Malnutrition
a sign of increased respiratory effort in birds
the tail bobbing up and down
The normal resting respiratory rate for pet birds
- in smaller birds (<300 g)
- larger birds (400–1,000 g)
- from 30−60 beats/min
* 15–30 beats/min
Overgrown beak and nails can indicate
husbandry, nutrition, or liver disease.
Excessive wear of the plantar surface of the feet can indicate
inadequate perching or poor nutrition.
Excessive wear or callous unilaterally may indicate a problem with the contralateral foot.
in birds,Body condition can be determined by
palpating the pectoral muscles.
- keel scoring system
- Severely obese birds deposit fat over the neck, thighs, and abdominal cavity.
a large parrot will have a heart rate of
> 250 beats/min when restrained.
The basic types of wing trims are
1) Removing 4–7 of the distal primary flight feathers from both wings, below the level of the coverts
2. Leaving 1–4 distal primary feathers and removing the remainder of the primaries from both wings
3. ) Removing a variable number of primary feathers from just one wing.
these are the excellent ways to remove excess keratin that can accumulate on the lateral surfaces of the beak.
!. Sanding tools
2. Concrete (cement) perches
In previous decades,were used to identify the location of parrots at which they were quarantined.
open-rolled steel bands
*Now most birds areleg banded(using closed bands) as chicks for individual identification.
these are rolled, steel quarantine bands are extremely strong and require removal by a full-size bolt cutter with sharp edges.
- open (gap present)
* closed aluminum bands placed on young, captive-raised birds must be stabilized to prevent twisting while being cut.
is replacing or augmenting banding as a means of identification
Microchipping
- is in the left pectoral muscles
- it is riskier in smaller birds.
- has resulted in bleeding and death.
in birds Blood is usually collected from?
- right jugular vein, which is larger than the left
- basilic (wing) vein - prone to hematoma
- medial metatarsal vein - medium to large psittacine birds, seabirds, and poultry
* Coating a syringe with an anticoagulant before collection may be helpful in smaller species
Uric acid may be increased in
- severe renal disease or with articular gout.
2. Severe dehydration
injections are used for fluid administration, some vaccinations, and many routine medications such as antibiotics.
*may be as effective as IM injections for most medications, without the associated muscle necrosis.
. SC injections
*Insulin syringes (50 U or 0.5 mL) with 27-gauge needles are invaluable for accurate dosing
are often used in birds. To maximize their absorption and minimize discomfort
SC fluids - should be warmed to 102°–106°F
*Sites of administration are the lateral flank, the inguinal web, and the back.
occasionally indicated in birds.
. IV injections
*administered IV are some antibiotics, amphotericin B, chemotherapeutic drugs, contrast media, and fluids
IM injections are given into the
- pectoral muscles in most pet birds;
- leg muscles - raptors
- muscle fibers of birds are more vascular and tightly packed —->muscle necrosis and inadvertent IV injection
Indwelling catheterscan be placed in the?
jugular, basilic, or medial metatarsal veins for constant-rate infusions or intermittent fluid administration.
Intraosseous (IO) catheters can be inserted, generally in the
proximal tibiotarsal bone or distal ulna.
*hypodermic needle may be used (usually 25-gauge for initial entry, followed by a second 22-gauge needle sutured in place), or a spinal needle with stylet for large birds.
*Without a stylet or second needle, a bone plug may obstruct the needle.
*
catheters are often preferable for longterm fluid therapy
IO catheters
*via IO catheters can be painful to the bird, especially after 1–2 days.
how many ml of fluids cn be admin in adult birds?
30 mL/kg can be administered tid-qid.
*Baby birds will hold ~10% of their body weight per feeding (100 mL/kg).
is sometimes desirable for diagnostic or treatment procedures to reduce stress and minimize fear.
Sedation
is a safe and effective sedation protocol in most pet
Midazolam -at 0.5–1 mg/kg, IM, or 1–2 mg/kg intranasally (IN)
*flumazenil(0.02–0.1 mg/kg, IM or IN -reverse the effects.
this is given when birds is thought to be in pain or discomfort?
- butorphanol(0.5–3 mg/kg, IM or IN
* may be given alone or withmidazolam.
often require the higher dosage (2–3 mg/kg) ofbutorphanol
Amazon parrots
- raptors require the lower dosage (0.5 mg/kg).
- Isoflurane or sevoflurane anesthesia _by face mask can also be used alone or in conjunction with sedation
common in clinically ill birds.
Delayed crop emptying
*Endotracheal tubes should be uncuffed, because the absence of a tracheal ligament increases the risk of tracheal necrosis if a cuff is overinflated
fast birds how many hours before admin of anesthesia
of 4–6 hr are typical.
*the crop should be palpated for the presence of food or fluid before anesthesia.
The normal body temperature of most psittacines is
103°–106°F (39°–41°C).
example of altricial, hatched birds?
- without feathers, with eyes closed, and helpless.
* Parrots, doves, and finches
e.g of born precocial,with down feathers, open eyes, and the ability to walk and feed themselves at hatching.
Poultry, ratites, and waterfowl
are completely dependent on the parent birds for warmth and food; they also lack a functional immune system and are more susceptible to disease.
Psittacine neonates
Disadvantages of hand raising can include
*stunting and an increase in husbandry-related diseases such as crop stasis or aspiration pneumonia.
The health of a chick depends on what factors
the health of the parents, genetics, the incubation process, nutrition (type of food, temperature, and consistency), environment (humidity, warmth, and cleanliness), and exposure to infectious diseases.
temperature guidelines are for newly hatched psittacine chicks?
*92°–94°F; unfeathered chicks, 90°–92°F; pin-feathered chicks, 85°–90°F; and fully-feathered and weaned chicks, 75°–80°F.
should be fed to chicks >2 days old (more dilute formula for newly hatched), with the environmental temperature between 102°–106°F.
*A diet of 25%–30% solids
characteristics of Healthy chicks
- have yellowish pink skin, and feathers first appear on the head, wing, and tail.
- Abnormal feather growth or delayed or abnormal opening of eyes can be a sign of stunting.
a lucent areas across the vane of the feathers
indicate a period of stress when that portion of the feather was forming
Stress bars
- common during weaning,
- A large number of stress bars may indicate an underlying illness or condition.
indication of hypovitaminosis A or chronic respiratory disease.
blunting of the choanal papilla
have a normally distended abdomen because of an enlarged proventriculus and ventriculus from being fed large amounts of formula.
Nestlings
Pediatric Diseases of Pet Birds
most common causes of respiratory disease in hand-fed psittacine birds.
Aspiration Pneumonia
*occurs as birds begin to wean.
clinical signs of aspiration pneumonia
increased respiration, respiratory distress, poor feeding response, and depression.
DX. based on history and physical examination findings.
*tx oxygen therapy, nebulization, antibiotics, antifungals, warmth, supplemental fluids, and anti-inflammatory drugs. Prognosis is guarded.
Bacterial Disease
The normal gut microflora in chicks
gram-positive bacteria.
*presence of large numbers of gram-negative bacteria or budding yeast indicates infection
Bacterial infections can occur from multiple sources: such as?
unsanitary environment, inappropriate storage of formula, and use of unclean feeding utensils.
CS for bacterial dse
*crop stasis, poor feeding response, regurgitation, depression, and dehydration.
*dx on clinical signs and results of a fecal or crop Gram stain, CBC (leukocytosis, monocytosis), and culture and sensitivity testing
*Tx is with antibiotics and supportive care
prophylactic treatment with an antifungal drug such asnystatinorfluconazole
can be present in low numbers in a healthy chick but may proliferate in the presence of antibiotic treatment
- most common fungal infection in young birds and can result in thickening of the crop mucosa,
- described as “Turkish towel in appearance.”
Candida albicans
CS:of Candida albicans
crop stasis, poor feeding response, and depression.
- lesions or plaques in the oral cavity. Intestinal or gastric candidiasis can result in malabsorption.
- Dx is with fecal or crop cytology revealing large numbers of budding yeasts
The most common viral diseases in psittacine chicks are ?
polyoma virus,
avian bornavirus,
proventricular dilatation disease and circovirus, and
psittacine beak and feather disease
tx for foreignbody body
require an ingluviotomy to gain access to the mucosal surface and lumen of the crop, proventriculus, or ventriculus.
*Removal of a foreign body, such as a feeding tube, is the most common indication for this procedure in pediatric birds.
in this Mild cases may result in red and inflamed skin in the area of the crop.
*
Crop Burns
- Second- and third-degree burns will be acutely inflamed and blistered and may lead to tissue necrosis and fistula formation.
- In subacute cases -food draining from a fistula through the crop wall and skin
tx or Crop Burns
*Surgical repair debriding devitalized tissues, separating the crop wall from overlying skin, and closing the two layers separately
it - occurs from improper hand-feeding technique, either with the syringe tip or a rigid feeding tube.
Esophageal and Pharyngeal Trauma
*leads to tissue trauma, cellulitis, and distribution of food into subcutaneous tissues.
t/f
in neonates than in adult birds, so some degree of hepatomegaly is normal in chicks.
true
Characteristics of neonates with hepatic lipidosis
- usually still being hand fed, often with a commercial formula to which the owners have added peanut butter, oil, or some other high-fat food, and
2) they are usually heavy for their age and exhibit severe respiratory distress.
best first step for hepatic lipidosis
Cool oxygenation
*have virtually no air sac capacity
are the general nutritional changes required for hepatic lipidosis
- addinglactulosetothe formula
- reducing the quantity of crop food per feeding,
- adjusting the content of the formula
- Parenteral fluid supplementation - hyperthermic bird hydrated
CS of Failure to Thrive
Stunted chicks are thin, and the head is disproportionately large.
Toes, wings, and hips are thin; eye and ear openings may be delayed.
The skin may be dry and without adequate subcutaneous fat.
Abnormal feather patterns (swirls) may develop on the head of a stunted chick
is a catch-all for deformities of the legs in young birds?
*are laxities of the ligaments of the stifle and/or angular deformities of the femur, tibiotarsus, and tarsometatarsus
splayleg
*risk factors include nutritional deficiencies and insufficient support or substrate in the enclosure.
TX for Splayleg or Rotational Leg Deformity
- external coaptation - are most successful when the bird is young.
- Placing the chick in a deep enclosure with a suspensory device or cloth that allows leg to be directed vertically
- taping the legs together in a “hobble” may be corrective if implemented early.
develop because of disruption of the cruciate and /or collateral ligaments
- Stifle subluxation
* Surgery (osteotomy and external skeletal fixator) may be used for rotational deformities.
commonly occurs in several birds from the same clutch and is seen most commonly in cockatoos.
- Mandibular prognathism
- correct by pulling the beak upward and out for several minutes, several times a day.
- older chicks -require a prosthetic
- Trans-sinus pinning is a more recent and more reliable method of correction but carries some risk.
is a lateral deviation of the upper or lower beak.
caused by improper incubation temperature or genetic
Scissor beak
*manually placing a counter force on the beak for several minutes 2–3 times daily.
- fairly common in neonates,, affecting more than one digit,
Constricted Toe Syndrome
most common inEclectusparrots and macaws,
usually in chicks housed in environments with inadequate humidity.
tx for Constricted Toe Syndrome
*detected early, debriding the annular band and applying a moist dressing
- more severe cases, small longitudinal incisions on the medial and lateral surfaces of the affected toe to allow for swelling and promote circulation.
- If circulation loss is severe and necrosis is apparent, amputation may be necessary.
usually involves the lateral or fourth toe, which points forward instead of backward.
*Malposition
easily corrected by taping the toe in a normal position.
*In young birds, the foot can be bandaged with the toe pointing backward in the normal position for several days
*Older chicks may need prolonged bandaging.
commonly seen in cockatiels and is often observed in clutch mates
- The condition is usually bilateral.
- The eyelids, if present, are generally normal in conformation but greatly reduced in length, leading to small to nonexistent palpebral fissures
Cryptophthalmia (Eyelid Atresia)
it is performed to Extend the palpebral fissure
conjunctival eversion
the causative agent of a Lockjaw”:
Bordetella avium
- most commonly in cockatiels.
- Prognosis is guarded to grave.
Bacterial invasion of Bordetella avium from the sinuses progresses to
the skeletal muscle of the mandible, resulting in a myositis and “lockjaw
seen most commonly in African grey parrots
*
- Choanal Atresia
* the communication between the nares, infraorbital sinus, and the choana is incomplete or absent
CS of Choanal Atresia
*increased mucus accumulation and infection in the nares and sinuses. Blunted choanal papilla may be detected on oral examination.
dx and tx of Choanal Atresia
- endoscopic exam
- by creating an opening in the choana through the nares with an intramedullary pin.
- red rubber feeding tube is then threaded through the nares, out the choana, and back behind the head of the bird and is left in place for 2–3 wk.
are most common and can lead to systemic disease
GI and respiratory infections
Normal bacterial flora of companion birds includes:
Lactobacillus, Corynebacterium, nonhemolyticStreptococcus, Micrococcusspp, and Staphylococcus epidermidis.
The most commonly reported pathogens in birds are
gram-negative bacteria
(Klebsiella,Pseudomonas,Aeromonas,Enterobacter,Proteus, andCitrobacterspp,Escherichia coli, andSerratia marcescens).
possible septicemia agents in birds attacked by pet cats or rats.
Pasteurellaspp
common intracellular bacterial pathogens.
MycobacteriumandChlamydia
The most common gram-positive bacterial pathogens are
S.aureus, S.intermedius,Clostridium,Enterococcus, Streptococcus, and otherStaphylococcusspp
*Methicillin-resistantS aureus(MRSA) is rare but has been documented
have been implicated in chronic sinusitis, often found in cockatiels. This organism is difficult to culture, and the true incidence is unknown
Mycoplasmaspp
responsible for several dermatologic conditions in psittacine birds.
Staphylococci and streptococci (especially hemolytic strains) andBacillusspp
are often isolated from lesions of pododermatitis (bumblefoot) in many avian species.
Staphylococci
are common secondary invaders of damaged cloacal tissue in birds with cloacal prolapse or papillomatosis
Clostridial organisms
*A Gram stain or anaerobic culture is necessary to identify these organisms
is used to identify normal flora, yeast, and spore-forming bacteria
A Gram stain
*Culture is needed to identify specific organisms and their sensitivity to antibiotics.
Sample sites for culture and cytology
choanal slit, sinus, cloaca, wounds, conjunctiva, internal organs (via ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspirates, endoscopic examination, or surgery), and blood
obligate intracellular bacterium) - infect all companion birds but is especially common in cockatiels, budgerigars, and parrots
- Chlamydia psittaci
- Zoonotic
- Incubation period - 3 days to several weeks
organism is excreted in the feces and in nasal and ocular discharge of infected birds
*these organism can remain infectious in organic debris for >1 mo.
Chlamydia psittaci
CS of Chlamydiosis (Psittacosis, Ornithosis)
ocular, nasal, or conjunctival irritation and discharge; anorexia; dyspnea; depression; dehydration; polyuria; biliverdinuria; and diarrhea.
in this dse Clinically ill birds may have a leukocytosis, monocytosis, and increased AST and bile acid concentrations
*hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, or air sacculitis.
Chlamydiosis (Psittacosis, Ornithosis)
tx for Chlamydiosis (Psittacosis, Ornithosis)
Doxycycline; treatment for 45 days
- Dietary calcium reduced
- Doxycyclineinjectable - 75–100 mg/kg every 5–7 days for 6 wk
chronic progressive disease affecting the liver and GI tract
Avian Mycobacteriosis
*most commonly infected are brotogeris parakeets and Amazon parrots
CA of Avian Mycobacteriosis
Mycobacterium aviumandM genavense.
Mycobacterium intracellulare,M bovis, andM tuberculosisare less commonly reported
CS of Mycobacteriosis in a cockatiel
showing diffuse swelling of the conjunctiva and eyelids.
Gross lesions of internal organs in psittacines with mycobacteriosis
Liver of a cockatiel -showing moderate diffuse enlargement with multifocal to coalescing yellow e tan foci.
(b) Spleen - showing diffuse and marked enlargement with multifocal to coalescing tan nodules.
(c) Small intestine of a moustached parakeet-showing an irregular mucosa with prominent villi giving a ‘shaggy’ appearance.
(d) Heart of a double yellow- headed Amazon - showing a pale tan-coloured irregular mass at the base of the heart
in Avian Mycobacteriosis dx reveal?
- have a significant leukocytosis with a monocytosis.
* hepatomegaly and splenomegaly. Granulomas may occur
DX in Avian Mycobacteriosis
DX: acid-fast staining, culture, and/or DNA probe of a biopsy specimen. Biopsy of the liver, intestines, spleen, or a suspected mass is recommended; however, PCR testing of ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspirates of the liver may be diagnostic
Use of multiple antibiotics (typically three) is recommended in this dse?
*Avian Mycobacteriosis
because mycobacterial organisms are prone to developing antibiotic resistance
antibiotics for Avian Mycobacteriosis
*for zoonotic risk, especially in immunocompromised people.
rifabutin(45 mg/kg),
clarithromycin(60–85 mg/kg),
ethambutol(30 mg/kg), and enrofloxacin (20–30 mg/kg). All combinations are used daily
are common in companion birds.they are a secondary infection in an already ill or immunocompromised bird.
Fungal diseases
The most common fungal diseases are:
respiratory tract infections caused byAspergillusspp and
GI tract infections caused byCandidaspp.
is an unusual fungus that affects the GI tract and occurs most commonly in small pet birds (budgerigars, lovebirds, finches, parrotlets, and cockatiels).
Macrorhabdus
a common fungal disease seen in pet birds
Candidiasis
*CA: opportunistic yeastCandida albicans, which commonly affects the GI tract.
the most common isolates Mycotic spp of birds
*found and may be refractory to treatment.
C albicans - affects unweaned chicks.
C tropicalis,C parapsilosis,C glabrata, andHansenulaspp
Candidiasis most commonly affects
unweaned chicks.
Those on broad-spectrum antibiotics are most at risk.
Neonatal cockatiels are considered most susceptible.
Clinical signs of Candidiasis in juvenile birds
include anorexia, crop stasis, white plaques in the oral cavity, regurgitation, and weight loss.
* in adults - mild weight loss, lethargy, and dull plumage
how to dx Candidiasis
- identifyingCandidaspp on a Gram, Romanowsky-type, or new methylene blue stain of the feces, crop contents, or regurgitated material.
- Scrapings or impression smears
- when tissue invasion has occurred, the budding yeast will produce hyphae that can be seen in scrapings obtained from the crop or pharynx, or from the feces.
is secondary to poor husbandry and an unclean environment.
candidiasis
help crop motility and prevent regurgitation.
Metoclopramide
tx for Candidiasis
- Nystatin(300,000 IU/kg, PO, bid) is commonly used because of its low cost and low toxicity.
- Disadvantages are poor taste and large volume required
- is fungistatic and not absorbed from the GI tract, it is only effective when in direct contact with infected tissue(tid)
what to use If the yeast is resistant tonystatinor the bird is difficult to medicate
fluconazole(20 mg/kg, PO, every 48 hr) is available for systemic treatment.
Flock treatment for Candidiasis
chlorhexidine at 10 mL/gal. of drinking water for 1–3 wk.
- is a disinfectant, its use will also deplete the normal digestive flora.
- apple cider vinegar Acidification of the upper GI tract
an opportunistic infection that typically occurs in immunocompromised hosts (malnutrition, especially vitamin A deficiency) or when birds are exposed to large numbers of aerosolized spores.
Aspergillosis
*not transmitted bird-to-bird.
most common Aspergillos species isolated;
*Aspergillus fumigatus
*A flavusandA nigerare also found.
Rhizopus,Penicillium,Mucor, andScedosporium apiospermum - more difficult to diagnose and treat.
Predisposing factors for developing infection in Aspergillosis include
- species predilection (African grey parrots, Amazon parrots, cockatiels, and macaws),
- aspiration of food or medications, *immunosuppression (underlying disease),
- moldy bedding or feed,
- and use of corticosteroids.
DX in Aspergillosis
*A Gram stain or modified Wright’s stain of lesions or debris often demonstrates fungal hyphae.
Extensive or chronic fungal sinusitis may lead to
osseous changes and permanent malformation of the upper respiratory architecture.
can occur in immunocompromised birds.
Tracheitis due to aspergillosis
often form in the syrinx of psittacine birds and raptors and are particularly challenging to treat
Aspergillusgranulomas
can provide a strong presumptive diagnosis in Aspergillosis
leukocytosis/monocytosis combined with clinical signs and radiographic findings
can provide a strong presumptive diagnosis in Aspergillosis
leukocytosis/monocytosis combined with clinical signs and radiographic findings
- birds with chronic disease will be anemic.
- A radiograph may reveal airsacculitis, granulomas, or severe pulmonary disease.
inAspergillosis Plasma protein electrophoresis showing
showing increased β-globulin levels
tx for Aspergillosis
- Amphotericin B -intratracheally at 1 mg/kg through the glottis
- only fungicidal agent available used intratracheally, and in IV administration.
- nebulization, a concentration of 0.25–1 mg/mL of sterile water can be used.
- Nasal and sinus flushes are generally more dilute at 0.05 mg/mL of sterile water
- not be diluted with saline, because this decreases its potency
tx for Aspergillosis
Itraconazole(5–10 mg/kg, PO, once to twice daily) most commonly used azole for systemic infection.
- African grey parrots are more sensitive to adverse effects ofitraconazole, especially regurgitation and anorexia
- dosed at 5 mg/kg/day, PO
tx for Aspergillosis
- used in lieu of or in conjunction withitraconazole.
- used for nebulization in conjunction with systemic therapy
- is being used for resistant strains ofAspergillus.
- Terbinafine(10–15 mg/kg, PO, bid)
- Clotrimazole (10 mg/mL, nebulized 15–30 min 2–4 times/day).
- Voriconazole(12–18 mg/kg, PO, bid)
what to do if fungal granulomas are identified and the lesions are accessible
debulking endosurgically or treating the lesions topically with amphotericin B
should be monitored every 4 wk during treatment.
of Aspergillosis
Hepatic enzyme, bile acids, and uric acid concentrations
management of birds with Aspergillosis
- Treatment with oral drugs should be continued for 2–4 wk
- Thickened and scarred air sacs that develop during and persist after infection can provide an ideal environment for disease recurrence.
Macrorhabdus ornithogasterInfection occurs in
budgerigars, parrotlets, lovebirds, cockatiels, and finches
Previously described as a bacterium, this organism has a worldwide distribution and varies widely in pathogenicity.
Macrorhabdus ornithogasterInfection (Macrorhabdosis, Megabacteria, Avian gastric yeast
*affects the proventriculus and ventriculus
. Macrorhabdus ornithogasterInfection clinical signs may mimic
*proventricular dilatation disease.
Mortality may be high, but birds may recover
t/f
Macrorhabdus ornithogasterInfection In birds that recover, relapses and potential shedding of the organism in the feces are likely.
true
This disease is often seen in conjunction with immunosuppression (eg, polyomavirus and circovirus infection, or associated with poor husbandry).
Macrorhabdus ornithogasterInfection
*Asymptomatic infection is common.
large, rod-shaped organisms are approximately 2–4 µm wide and 60–90 µm long.
*appears as a large, gram-positive rod, with mottling or stippling throughout its length.
- Macrorhabdus ornithogaster
* Wet mount, modified Wright’s, or Gram stain of a fecal sample often reveal organisms
in Macrorhabdus ornithogasterInfection Radiographs may reveal
dilated proventriculus. Necropsy lesions may include: thinning of the isthmus, proventricular dilation and ulceration, thickening of the proventricular wall, mucus production, and softening of the koilin layer of the ventriculus.
TX:
for Macrorhabdus ornithogasterInfection
- Amphotericin (100 mg/kg, PO, bid for 30 days)
- Acidification of the proventriculus (apple cider vinegar, vitamin C) - create an environment less conducive to proliferation ofMacrorhabdus.
- Voriconazolehas been successful (anecdotal) at 10 mg/kg, PO, bid.
- Sodium benzoate -½ tsp (2.5 g)
how to CONTROL:Macrorhabdus ornithogasterInfection
Asymptomatic carriers are common.
Artificial incubation of eggs and hand feeding nestlings can help establish a pathogen-free flock
reported in birds with feather picking and dermatologic conditions.
*Culture is often unrewarding.
Malasseziaspp
TX: Malasseziaspp
fluconazoleat 5–10 mg/kg, PO, once to twice daily
*dilute chlorhexidine 0.1% spray orclotrimazole
- worldwide in occurrence and caused by a saprophytic fungus.
- uncommon in avian species, but it has been isolated from the fecal droppings of wild birds, particularly pigeons, and from feces of canaries and psittacine birds.
Cryptococcus neoformans (Cryptococcosis) C neoformansis zoonotic
C neoformansinfection has been reported in
Columbiformes, a Moluccan cockatoo, a thick-billed parrot, a green-wing macaw, and an African grey parrot
With CNS involvement, neurologic signs such as blindness and paralysis
Cryptococcus neoformans (Cryptococcosis)
this organism is a round to oval yeast with a mucopolysaccharide capsule.
*A mucoid gelatinous exudate may be noted within the respiratory tract, coelomic cavity, sinuses, brain, or within the long bones.
*Cryptococcus neoformans
are the drugs of choice for CNS or ocular infections in Cryptococcosis
*Fluconazoleorvoriconazolea
a yeast occasionally seen in skin infection in raptors (falcons).
*causes yellowish brown crusty areas of the skin in the axillary or inguinal areas
- Rhodotorula mucilaginosis
* Untreated lesions may develop into hyperkeratotic proliferative growths
Miscellaneous Mycoses
1. Dermatophytosis – including: Trichophytonand Microsporumspp is occasionally reported in pet birds. 2. Histoplasmosis and 3. Mucormycosis
Commonly reported parasitic diseases
- protozoal infections such as *giardiasis in cockatiels,
- sarcocystis in larger parrots, and
- mites in budgerigars and passerines.
. Protozoa in birds
- Haemoproteus -importedCacatuaspp.
- Leucocytozoon,
- Plasmodium, and
- Atoxoplasmaspp - in canaries
Giardiasis: - reported in many species of birds but is most commonly seen in
cockatiels.
Adult birds may be latent carriers.
Transmission is presumably direct (ingestion of infective cysts).
CS of Giardiasis:
- feather pulling in the axillary and inner thigh regions, along with vocalization.
- Droppings of affected cockatiels may be voluminous and aerated (a “popcorn” appearance
DX: in . Giardiasis includes
- zinc sulfate flotation test of feces to detect cysts,
- direct saline smear of fresh feces to detect motile trophozoites,
- and ELISA test forGiardiaspp antigen in feces
- snap test
TX: for Giardiasis:
- Metronidazole(50 mg/kg/day, for 5–7 days) or
- Carnidazole (20 mg/kg/day, PO, for 1–2 days) is the recommended treatment
- In cockatiels fenbendazole at dosages extrapolated from dogs has been anecdotally reported to cause death
Trichomoniasis: - reported in many orders of birds, including
Columbiformes, Galliformes, Falconiformes, Psittaciformes, and Passeriformes.
Trichomonas gallinae are called___in birds of prey?
- called frounce
- canker in
- Trichomonas gallinae occasionally seen in pet birds, notably budgerigars
CS of Trichomoniasis in raptors and Columbiformes
Whitish yellow, caseous lesions adherent to the mucosa of the oropharynx, crop, and esophagus
CS of Trichomoniasis in Budgerigars
do not have grossly visible oral lesions but do have increased salivation and regurgitation.
MOT of Trichomoniasis
- direct (parents feeding young)
- indirect (ingestion of contaminated food and water) contact; raptors may become infected by ingesting infected pigeons or doves.
coccidia are much more common in
gallinaceous or Columbiforme birds,
*although coccidial oocysts are seen occasionally in psittacine and passerine birds.
seen in a variety of avian species but is thought to be a secondary rather than a primary pathogen.
*Transmission - through ingestion or inhalation of sporulated oocysts
Cryptosporidiosis
is the best diagnostic test in Cryptosporidiosis
- Sheather’s sugar flotation test is best.
* acid-fast stain can also be used to detect the organism.
Plasmodiumsppinfection (malaria) - highly pathogenic in
gyrfalcons, canaries, and penguins.
- Plasmodiumis spread by mosquitoes
- TX: chloroquine
highly pathogenic protozoal disease that causes hepatomegaly and splenomegaly in canaries?
*with coccidia-like oocysts shed in the feces.
Atoxoplasmosis
*severe in fledgling birds, *adults are often asymptomatic.
diagnostic test in Atoxoplasmosis
- : fecal flotation (best in adults
- buffy coat smear with Romanowsky stain,
- liver impression smear, or *PCR testing of feces.
tx for atoxoplasmosis
- toltrazuril (12.5 mg/kg/day, PO, × 14 days)
* sulfachlorpyridazine (150–300 mg/L drinking water, 5 days/wk × 2–3 wk).
Ascarids – Common in
budgerigars, cockatiels, and psittacine; also found in many birds who have access to the ground
Tiny thread-like worms that infect the gastrointestinal tract of many companion birds, such as macaws, canaries, budgerigars, pigeons, and gallinaceous birds
Capillaria
These infect the intestines of cockatoos, parakeets, parrots, and macaws, and include four types of eyeworms
Spiruroidea
Syngamus – These are rarely found in companion birds, but are more common in
galliformes and anseriformes
These populate the eyes, heart, joints, organs, and subcutaneous tissues of cockatoos and psittacines
Filariidea
Mot of . Roundworms:
by ingestion of embryonated ova.
C/S –loss of condition, weakness, emaciation, and death; intestinal obstruction is common in heavy infections
DX.by fecal flotation
tx Roundworms
- Ivermectin(0.2 mg/kg, PO, SC, or IM, repeated in 10–14 days).
- Pyrantel pamoate (4.5 mg/kg, PO, repeated in 10–14 days), or
- Fenbendazole (20–50 mg/kg, PO, repeated in 14 days) are generally effective.
t/f
roundworm
In warm climates where exposure via outdoor aviaries is likely, routine deworming (every 6 mo
t
The most common pet birds infected with tapeworms are
cockatoos, African grey parrots, and finches.
- Intermediate hosts are likely insects and arachnids of various types, earthworms, and slugs.
- Infected birds are asymptomatic or are unthrifty, with or without diarrhea.
tx for Cestodes
: Praziquantel(5–10 mg/kg, PO or IM, once) is the recommended treatment.
Parasites of the Integument which is common in budgerigars and rare in all other psittacine species
Knemidocoptes pilae(alsoCnemidocoptes pilae)
- causes Scaly Face (Leg) Mite:
CS of Scaly Face (Leg) Mite in budgerigars
*white, porous, proliferative encrustations involving the corners of the mouth, cere, beak, and occasionally the periorbital area, legs, or vent are typical
CS of Scaly Face (Leg) Mite in passerine birds
canaries and European goldfinches
crusts form on the legs and surfaces of the digits (“tassel foot”).
DX test for . Scaly Face (Leg) Mite
- facial scrapings of budgerigars(pathognomonic)
- skin scrapings of the legs often result in hemorrhage and are generally not recommended in passerine
tx.
- Ivermectin(0.2 mg/kg, PO or IM) or
- Moxidectin (0.2 mg/kg, PO or topically) is generally effective. The treatment is repeated in 2 wk.
___birds are seldom affected by feather mites.
Psittacine birds
red mite
Dermanyssus gallinae
Mite-infested birds may be treated with
pyrethrin sprays,
5% carbaryl powder, orivermectin(0.2 mg/kg, PO or IM) repeated in 2 wk.
parasitizes the entire respiratory tract, most frequently of canaries and gouldian finches
*mites are found in the trachea, syrinx, lungs, and air sacs
Sternostoma tracheacolum
- All stages of the mite are found within the respiratory tissues
- Mortality can be high
dx test for Sternostoma tracheacolum
*Transillumination of the trachea in a darkened room
tx for Sternostoma tracheacolum
Ivermectin(0.2–0.4 mg/kg, PO or IM) repeated in 2 wk or moxidectin (0.2 mg/kg, PO or topically
major cause of mortality in parrots housed outdoors.
*oocysts of this protozoan parasite are passed from infected opossum feces by insects (eg, flies, cockroaches) or mice and rats into the feed cups or enclosure of the birds and a rapidly fatal disease can develop.
Sarcocystosis
- not contagious
- Large die-offs
a high mortality rate is observed in these untreated birds with Sarcocystosis
cockatoos, African grey parrots, andEclectusparrots
- Cockatiels are also susceptible
- Old World species are immunologically naive to this disease
Sarcocystosis
-pneumonic lesions are often noted at necropsy in this species.
Cockatiels
t/f
Sarcocystosis
this disease occurs in the early stages of infection as the parasite is undergoing schizogony or merogony (asexual reproduction) in the lung.
*This causes lung damage, and the birds die acutely with or without signs of respiratory distress
t
in Old World parrots (eg, cockatoos, African grey parrots),
Sarcocystosis
t/f
In New World parrots (eg, macaws, conures), the organism encysts in the muscle or CNS, causing weakness, ataxia, or neurologic signs.
true
*Encephalitis - psittacines and raptors.
dx in Sarcocystosis
- plasma protein electrophoresis may indicate infection (marked increase in β-globulin concentrations with or without a marked increase in gamma globulin concentrations)
- indirect immunofluorescence antibody (IFA) test -aid in antemortem diagnosis of the nonperacute form of sarcocystosis in psittacine birds
- muscle biopsy (quadriceps muscle
- Increases in enzyme activities of LDH, AST, and CK
tx for Sarcocystosis
- trimethoprim/sulfa (30 mg/kg, bid) and
- pyrimethamine(0.5 mg/kg, PO, bid)
*Sarcocystis neurona, that affects horses
other name of Avian Polyomavirus/AVP
(Papovavirus,
Budgerigar fledgling disease,
Psittacine polyomavirus
*primarily affects young birds.
AVP Two primary forms based on species affected
- budgerigar fledgling disease
- nonbudgerigar polyoma infection
- Both are characterized by peracute to acute death of preweaned neonates.
incubation period of AVP
7–10 days
*Adult birds typically are resistant to infection; they will seroconvert and shed the virus for up to 90 days
Other clinical signs for AVP
: budgerigar fledging disease
are cutaneous hemorrhage, abdominal distention, and feather abnormalities.
*Surviving budgerigars >3 wk old often exhibit feather dystrophy (French molt or feather dusters
CS: nonbudgerigar polyoma disease
subclinical disease or hemorrhages and coagulopathies
Gross necropsy findings in Avian Polyomavirus/AVP
- deceased chicks often include pale skeletal musculature and subcutaneous ecchymotic hemorrhages.
- kidneys and liver are enlarged and may be pale, congested, and mottled, or have pinpoint, white foci.
- Petechial orecchymotic hemorrhages may also be present on viscera, particularly the heart
- hydropericardium.
- Intranuclear inclusion bodies
AVP control
all breeding must be stopped for 6 mo
tx for AVP
*is supportive care.
A vaccine is available
*breeding birds, two doses of the vaccine
*administered at a 2-wk interval; this should be done off-season.
*administration of the first dose when the chick is >35 days old, with a booster vaccination in 2–3 wk
caused by a psittacine circovirus.
- Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PFBD
- recognized in the 1970s
- by inhalation and/or ingestion of the virus and can occur vertically.
In the classic PBFD infection, the first indication of the presence of disease is
*lack of powder down on the beak.
*virus causes abnormal formation of growing feathers and immunosuppression
*
the disease occurs in young birds, which develop enteritis and pneumonia, lose weight, and die
A peracute form of (PFBD
in (PFBD) African grey parrots may develop___ a because the virus attacks the bone marrow
pancytopenia,
*birds die with viral inclusions in the thymus, bursa, and bone marrow.
dx result in (PFBD)
intranuclear or intracytoplasmic inclusions may be seen histologically in the feathers, bursa, thymus, liver, or other organs.
tx for (PFBD)
- Isolation and eventual euthanasia
- Strict hygiene
- PCR testing of both birds
- infected breeding colonies, removing all eggs for cleaning and artificial incubation
causes a viral hepatitis seen predominantly in New World species (Amazon parrots, macaws, and conures
Pacheco’s Disease (Pacheco’s herpesvirus) -
is an alpha herpesvirus that is the causative agent of Pacheco’s disease and internal papillomatosis in parrots.
Psittacine herpesvirus
occurs in parrots that have survived Pacheco’s disease and most commonly observed in macaws, Amazon parrots, conures, and hawk-headed parrots.
nternal papillomatosis
incubation period of Pacheco’s Disease (Pacheco’s herpesvirus
- 3–14 days
* spread by direct contact, aerosol, or fecal contamination of food or water
t/fin Pacheco’s Disease Infected birds become chronic carriers and will remain persistently infected and intermittently shed the virus throughout their lives.
true
*Patagonian species and someAratingaspp may be natural hosts in the wild
Terminal signs in Pacheco’s Disease
acute death in well-fleshed birds and bright yellow urates with scant feces.
dx test in Pacheco’s Disease
- DNA probes of combined oral and cloacal swabs or blood samples
- Increases in plasma AST activity
- leukopenia
- hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, and renomegaly.
DD in Pacheco’s Disease
acute salmonellosis, polyomavirus, and psittacine reovirus.
tx in Pacheco’s Disease
- Acyclovir(80 mg/kg, tid, or 400 mg/kg in feed) - used during an outbreak
- Autogenous vaccines - decreased morbidity and mortality.
- inactivated vaccine is available
Lesions ofpapillomatosis-(Internal papillomatosis )predominantly present in the
oral and cloacal mucosa but may also be found internally in the intestinal tract, or less commonly, in the conjunctiva or bursa
Avian Bornavirus/Proventricular Dilatation Disease PDD - also known as
macaw wasting disease, neuropathic ganglioneuritis, lymphoplasmacytic ganglioneuritis, psittacine encephalomyelitis, avian bornavirus (ABV), *recognized in the late 1970s in macaws imported into the USA and Germany
Avian Bornavirus/Proventricular Dilatation Disease PDD caused by?
- avian bornavirus.
* affects macaws, conures, and African grey parrots, although all parrots are probably susceptible.
DD of Avian Bornavirus/Proventricular Dilatation Disease PDD
heavy metal toxicosis, foreign body intestinal obstruction, internal papillomatosis, internal neoplasia, and GI infections (including bacterial and fungal proventricular infections
tx for ABV
- NSAID
- PCR (a minimum of three tests) and separating positive birds from negative birds is a recommended
- ABV is not a long-lived virus in the environment; therefore
- good hygiene and ultraviolet light can help to limit spread of disease in a home or aviary setting
large DNA viruses that induce intracytoplasmic, lipophilic inclusion bodies (Bollinger bodies) in the epithelial cells of the integument, respiratory tract, and oral cavity.
Poxviruses
- All birds are considered susceptible to poxvirus
- environmentally stable
- cannot penetrate intact skin, and a break in the skin or mucous membrane must be present for infection to occur
types of Poxvirus infection
Cutaneous - appears as nodular proliferations or wartlike lesions on the unfeathered skin around the eyes, beak, nares, and legs. Most commonly seen in psittacines and raptors.
Diphtheritic - characterized by lesions on the mucosa, tongue, pharynx, and larynx
Systemic - characterized by a ruffled appearance, depression, cyanosis, anorexia, and wartlike tumors of the skin infections
dx procedure in poxvirus
History, physical examination findings,
and histologic findings of Bollinger bodies in affected tissues.
tx for poxvirus
Nonspecific and may include supportive care, fluids, parenteral vitamin A, ophthalmic ointments for eye infections, assisted feedings, and antibiotics to prevent or treat secondary infections.
MOT of Poxvirus
- insect vectors (mosquito bites) or other entry through breaks in the skin.
- Vaccines for canarypox, fowlpox, and pigeonpox are available but are specific for their host species.
caused by a paramyxovirus group 1, affects most avian species and is a significant threat to the poultry industry
Viscerotropic Velogenic Newcastle Disease VVND (Exotic Newcastle disease)
MOT of Newcastle
respiratory aerosols, fecal contamination of food or water, direct contact with infected birds, and fomites
CS for NW
unilateral or bilateral wing and leg paralysis, chorea, torticollis, and dilated pupils also may be seen.
DD for exotic Newcastle
other paramyxoviruses (non-Newcastle),
psittacine proventricular dilatation syndrome, and
heavy metal toxicosis.
DX for Exotic Newcastle disease
via viral isolation,
but agar gel immunodiffusion tests that can be performed on whole blood or serum
lx for exotic NewCastle
hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, petechial or ecchymotic hemorrhages on serosal surfaces of all viscera and air sacs, airsacculitis, and excess straw-colored peritoneal fluid.
Other Paramyxovirus Infections
- Paramyxovirus groups 2 - causes mild illness in passerines and a more serious disease in psittacines.
- Paramyxovirus group 3 - most frequently inNeophemaspp, lovebirds, and gouldian finches
tx
*vaccine for paramyxovirus group 1 should not be used in psittacines, because it can cause fatal reactions.
arthropodborne virus in the genusFlavivirus(family Flaviviridae).
- West Nile Virus (WNV)
- reported in birds in the USA in August 1999.
- it has been reported in >320 species of birds.
have suffered particularly high morbidity and mortality with WNV
American crow (Corvus brachyrunchus) and other corvids *Other affected species include canaries, psittacines, and raptors.
are the principal vectors of disease.
Mosquitoes (Culexspp)
the most commonly affected WNV
Juvenile birds
Ophthalmologic findings in raptors with WNV are
anterior uveitis, exudative chorioretinal lesions, and chorioretinal scarring.
DX test for WNV
- Paired samples submitted 2 wk apart
- dx determined at necropsy
- brain and kidney are the preferred tissues
tx for WNV
*recombinant vaccine 2–4 wk before mosquito season, with a booster 3 wk after the initial dose.
caused by an orthomyxovirus.
*zoonotic potential
*
Avian Influenza
Most pet birds have the potential to live at
20−80 yr, depending on their size (with smaller birds having a shorter life span and larger birds a longer life span).
Geriatric Diseases of Pet Birds
Cataracts - occur in many species of psittacine birds as they age, notably in
*macaws, Amazon parrots, and cockatiels.
often develop secondary to infection or trauma or may be age related
Cataracts
*Uveitis may also be present.
ophthalmic conditions that may be encountered in geriatric birds
keratoconjunctivitis sicca, corneal ulcerations, eyelid abnormalities, hypopyon, anterior uveitis, conjunctival granulomas, infection of the conjunctiva (eg,Chlamydia,Mycoplasma, poxvirus), Harderian gland adenoma, and lymphoma.
t/f
Commonly used mydriatics are not useful in birds because of the skeletal (as opposed to smooth) muscle found in the iris.
true
Arthritis in birds that most common in the digits.
Septic arthritis
- also common in geriatric birds and can lead to other issues such as pododermatitis if not caught early and treated.
Osteoarthritis
Radiographic lesions in arthritis
narrowing of the joint space, sclerosis of the subchondral bone, misalignment of the joint, and osteophyte formation.
Commonly affected joints are the
tarsus, stifle, and phalangeal joints.
*joints of the thoracic limb appear to be less commonly affected.
tx for artritis
NSAIDs, chondroprotectants, and possibly opioids
*meloxicam(0.5–1 mg/kg, PO, once to twice daily), a COX-2 inhibitor
Potential adverse effects of NSAIDs
*renal ischemia, so they should be used with caution longterm and at the lowest therapeutic dose possible.
may be necessary for acute exacerbations of a chronic arthritic condition or for conditions not responding initially to NSAIDs.
Opioids
may be used until the NSAIDs take effect.
Tramadol(15–30 mg/kg, PO, bid-qid) orbutorphanol(0.5–3 mg/kg, IM, every 4 hr
management for arhritis
Encouraging flighted birds (without clipped wings) to fly in a safe environment is the best form of exercise
may have an anti-inflammatory effect and be renal protective.
Fatty acids
*Flax seed oil ( 0.1–0.2 mL/kg/day, PO) is recommended as the best source of fatty acid supplementation for birds.
relatively common condition of older pet birds.
- is often a sequela of osteoarthritis.
- progressive disease
Bumblefoot
Effective antibiotics for Pododermatitis /bumblefoot
amoxicillin/clavulanate (125 mg/kg, PO, tid), enrofloxacin (10–15 mg/kg, PO, bid), and marbofloxacin (5 mg/kg/day) for 10–14 days.
may be seen at any age, but older birds are more likely to develop this kind of dse
Renal Disease
tx for renal dse
- fluid therapy) and antibiotics
- Colchicine(0.04 mg/kg, PO, bid) andallopurinol(10–30 mg/kg, PO, bid
- Essential fatty acids (omega 3) at 0.1–0.22 mL/kg/day, PO, have been used anecdotally
has been associated with atherosclerosis in pet birds, and potential risk factors are a sedentary lifestyle, a high-fat diet, and hypercholesterolemia.
Cardiac disease
CS for cardiac dse
right-side heart disease, hepatomegaly and ascites are common.
*In birds, right-side cardiac disease is more prevalent than left-side
tx for cardiac dse
Enalapril(0.25–0.5 mg/kg/day, PO),furosemide(0.15–2 mg/kg, PO, SC, or IM, once to twice daily), pimobendan (6 mg/kg, PO, bid), anddigoxin(0.01-0.02 mg/kg, PO, bid).
a proliferative lesion of the tunica media and tunica intima of elastic and muscular arteries causing abnormal vascular flow and loss of endothelial integrity initiating thrombosis.
Atherosclerosis
- is common in psittacine birds
- Amazon parrots, macaws, and African grey parrots seem to be particularly susceptible.
most affected birds are in what age?
10–15 yr old), sedentary lifestyle, and a high-fat diet.
- At necropsy, grossly thickened arterial walls are seen.
- Lipemia is often present, and marked increases in cholesterol and triglyceride conc
tx for Atherosclerosis
Isoxsuprine (10 mg/kg/day, PO) has been used anecdotally with some success.
Essential fatty acids (flax seed oil at 0.1–0.2 mL/kg/day, PO) have been advocated and used to reduce cholesterol and inflammation
can affect birds of any age but is more common in geriatric birds.
Liver Disease
- Hepatic lipidosis is most commo
- n, possibly resulting from longterm feeding of an inappropriate (high-fat) diet
can result in fibrosis of the liver and decreased liver function and failure.
Chronic liver disease
liver dse Imaging (radiographs or CT scan and/or ultrasound) may reveal
hepatomegaly or microhepatica.
Liver Disease tx
silymarin (milk thistle) (100–150 mg/kg, PO, bid) and ursodeoxycholic acid (10–15 mg/kg/day, PO).
