Overall Revision Qs Flashcards
What is the name of the module that receives light information from menalopsin-containing photoreceptors?
Suprachiasmic nucleus in the hypothalamus.
What are the two amino acids used in the synthesis or dopamine and noradrenaline and serotonin?
Tyrosine for dopamine and noradrenaline and tryptophan for serotonin.
The fact that it takes several weeks for the beneficial effects of SSRIs to be felt indicates what about the link between serotonin and depression?
SSRIs are at work in the brain about 1 hour after consumption, so the fact that it can take several weeks before the beneficial effects of these medications are seen suggests that these effects are not merely mediated by the increase in serotonin in the synapses.
It could be that the increase in serotonin in the synapses is leading to effects such as having epigenetic effects, altering synaptic connects etc. These effects take longer to be felt, hence the latency of beneficial effects of SSRIs.
What is an older class of anti-depressants that targeted the action of serotonin and why are they not used as much anymore?
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs) were once a popular antidepressant.
They worked by blocking the action of monoamine oxidase, which is the enzyme that breaks down serotonin (as well as dopamine and noradrenaline).
MAOIs could lead to lethal doses of serotonin and other neuomodulators and therefore it is not used as often.
What are the assumptions made about the data if doing a t-test?
The samples have been been assigned randomly.
There is homogeneous variance across samples.
The subjects in each sample do not influence the other sample.
The data is distributed normally.
What are the three types of t-tests we discussed this semester?
- Single sample
- Between groups/independent measures t-test
3.Within group/repeated-measures/paired-sample t-test
What makes up the hippocampal formation?
The subiculum, the hippocampus proper, the dentate gyrus.
The findings of Kanwisher et al, Gautier et al, and Malach et al, provide a good example of when there are different interpretations of data based on different experimental conditions and lead to very different theories.
Explain how these three groups fMRI to understand how we process certain visual stimuli, such as faces.
Kanwisher et al, using fMRI, proposed that there is a module in the brain that is specifically activated when we look at and recognise faces. This area they termed the Fusiform Face Area.
Gautier et al, also using fMRI, came along and said that no, this area is not just for facial recognition, but rather is for recognition of things that we are very familiar with. With are expert face recognisers because they are such a big aspect of our everyday.
Malach et al, also using fMRI, then came along and said no. This was also not what was going on. What in fact was happening was that these areas reflected the spatial coding of the brain and that faces are normally seen in the centre of our vision, whereas objects that tend to be in the periphery will engage other areas of the brain.
When a strong magnetic field is applied to hydrogen atoms, what happens to their spins?
They spin in aligned with the magnetic field, either parallel or anti-parallel.
What are some ways that reverse inference can be avoided when using techniques such as fMRI?
There are two considerations that should inform experiments using fMRI.
These considerations are quite intuitive, however, are also not always considered.
First, we need to have reasonable evidence to suggest that the cognitive process we are looking at is associated with the signal we are looking at.
Secondly we need to be reasonably assured that the task participants are engaging in is actually engaging the cognitive process of interest.
These considerations were published in 2006 by Poldrack.
What are binocular neurons are where are they located?
Binocular neurons are neurons that process depth perception. They receive information from both visual fields and with this information are able to process depth perception.
In what area of the brain is depth perception processed and why is this the case?
Binocular neurons are found in the primary visual cortex, or V1.
V1 is where information from both visual fields converge. Before this happens deptth perception cannot be perceived/processed.
Is there simple motion processing in V1?
Where is more complicated/in-depth processing done?
Yes. There is preliminary motion processing done in V1. Higher order motion processing is performed in the DORSAL pathway of visual processing in the MEDIAL TEMPORAL cortex or V5/MT.
Is Alzheimer’s Disease considered to be genetically mediated?
Do individuals with Down Syndrome have an increased likelihood of developing Alzheimer’s Disease?
Yes.
Down Syndrome is characterised by three chromosome 21’s being present. Chromosome 21 has a gene that produces one of the key players in the pathogenesis of AD - amyloid protein.
Are neurons that produce/release Glutamate more prevalent than GABA-producing neurons?
Yes. Around 40% of brain neurons produce glutamate, whereas around 30-40% of neurons produce GABA.
GABA aids in the fine-tuning of neural connections and signalling.
How many receptor types are there for serotonin?
How many receptor types are there for dopamine?
Is Adenosine an excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter?
It is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that, when bound to its receptor, causes the hyperpolarisation of the postynapic membrane, which in turn leads to the decreased likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing.
What is one way adenosine can be considered to modulate the release of other neurotransmitters?
Adenosine appears to act in various way to alter/influence neural signalling/activation.
From my understanding, adenosine binding to receptors at the postsynaptic membrane depolarises cells and decreases likelihood of postsynaptic firing.
Adenosine receptors are also thought to use up second messengers and therefore even if other neurotransmitters are released at the synapse there may not be enough second messengers for their receptors to function correctly.
Finally, there are also presynaptic adenosine receptors that when bound prevent the release of glutamate from the presynaptic neuron.
Is heroin neurotoxic?
Is ice neurotoxic?
No.
Yes.
How do heroin, bruprenorphine, nalaxone and methodone work?
Heroin is a FULL OPIOD AGONIST.
Buprenorphine is a PARTIAL OPIOID AGONIST used to treat heroin addiction.
Nalaxone is a FULL OPIOID ANTAGONIST used to treat heroin overdose.
Methadone is a FULL OPIOD AGONIST which has a slow effect/release and used to treat heroin dependence.
What is an example of a lipid non-traditional neurotransmitter?
Endogenous or exogenous cannibinoids, such as THC and CBD.
What is an example of a gas non-traditional neurotransmitter?
NO and carbon monoxide.
What is a peptide non-traditional neurotransmitter?
Endogenous opioids and opiate drugs, such as heroin.
Where in the brain are endogenous opioids and their receptors found?
In areas relating to pain processing.
Endogenous opioids are peptides. Peptides are two or more amino acids joined together.
Are peptides synthesised or are they the result of the breakdown of proteins?
Peptides are generally not synthesised in the cell, and arise from the breakdown of proteins (proteins are made up of many aa joined together).
What is unique about the gas non-traditional neurotransmitters, such as NO?
NO not only does not require to be collected in and released by vesicles, but it does does not require receptors on other cells to have an influence on these.
Instead it is synthesised in the cell and then immediately diffuses out of the cell and straight into other cells.
