outcome 1 Flashcards
what is slandered English?
The variety of English that a community has determined to represent that community’s established variety of written and spoken English, and is formally codified in dictionaries and other official language resources.
Referential function
Describes language users sharing information with their intended audience. The message is presented as fact, regardless of whether it is true.
Emotive function
Allows users to express emotions and desires.
This function is about the addresser and their presentation of emotion - real or not.
Conative function
Involves directions, questions and commands. Messages with a conative function aim to cause the audience to react in some way.
Phatic function
Creates and maintains social connections between the writer or speaker and their audience. These messages are somewhat meaningless outside a social context.
Metalinguistic function
Describes language itself. It is language used to describe language. This function can be used to check for understanding.
Poetic function
Focuses on the message itself, rather than the communicators. It is sometimes referred to as the aesthetic function; texts are created with consideration to beauty or wit of the words
Register
Register describes the way an addresser intentionally alters their language to suit the situation (aka use-related variation).
It involves all features of language and levels of formality.
Register is determined by lexical choices, syntax and pronunciation.
Some registers are easily defined such as doctors or lawyers or speak in a medical or legal register characterised by elements such as their use of formal language and jargon (technical or specialised language).
Other registers are not so clear, and can be merged to achieve a particular purpose.
Tenor
The relationships between the participants of a communicative exchange. This is informed by the situational and cultural contexts of the text and is informed by:
Social status
Professional roles
Personal relationships
Social distance
Overall, we are referring to how this relationship shapes the way language is used.
Audience
The audience is the intended listener’s to or reader/s of a text. The familiarity of an audience to the speaker or writer will influence the register of the text, e.g., a speaker may be more informal when addressing a familiar audience.
Context
Situational context: This refers to the extralinguistic circumstances that influence language use, including field, tenor, language mode, setting and text type.
>FARTS
Field: semantic field/domain, Audience, Relationship/Tenor, Text type and mode, Setting
Cultural context: This refers to the extralinguistic circumstances that will influence language use, including the values, attitudes and beliefs of the speaker, writer and/or interlocutor(s) or audience.
>VIBA
values, identity, beliefs, attitudes
Metalanguage, Colloquial language
Colloquial language: a type of casual and relaxed informal language that is often location specific.
Slang: Newly formed words and phrases that are commonly found in very informal texts. They can be playful in nature, or even suggestive or crass
Metalanguage, Slang
Slang: Newly formed words and phrases that are commonly found in very informal texts. They can be playful in nature, or even suggestive or crass
Metalanguage, Taboo language
Taboo language: Language that is considered inappropriate or insulting by a large portion of a society
Metalanguage, Dysphemism
Dysphemism: An inappropriate word or phrase that is intentionally used in place of a more neutral word, to intensify the impact of the utterance
Metalanguage, Swearing
Swearing: The use of a specific set of terms, often intentionally though sometimes unintentionally, that are deemed rude and offensive within a particular culture.
colloquial language, connected speech process
where words are reduced or modified. In written texts the lexical choices are spelt as if they were spoken
ex. Im ..gonna.. go out
colloquial language, idiomatic expressions
words, phrases or expressions that have figurative meaning, not directably translatable or understood be diff cultures
ex.
im gonna call into work…chuck a sickie..
colloquial language, contraction
a word formed by removing same letters replacing them with ‘. reduce formality in written texts not necessary for spoken
ex.
aren’t
colloquial language, Abbreviation
BTW, info.
colloquial language, informal syntax and grammar
sentence fragments
ex.
cause
Y’know
aren’t
nothin’
colloquial language, ellipsis
omission of words/ phrases, can occur when there is shared knowledge/ context between people
-both formal + informal however more informal (since it prioritises efficiency + ease of communication)
ex.
you going too?
-omission of are
colloquial language, regionally specific language
informal words or phrases that are commonly used in a specific region, not widely understood. arise from cultural, historical or social influences serve as linguistic markers.
ex.
mate, bogan
colloquial language, shortening of names
nicknames casual affectionate and or efficient
purposes: intimacy
the authentic and personalised results of informal language can work to develop a sense of closeness, familiarity and personal connection. Colloquialisms and slang establish shared understanding and connection between interlocutors.
purposes: Solidarity
a sense of shared purpose or unity can be developed through use of collective language and focus of common experiences. Words of encouragement foster solidarity as does drawing on shared knowledge and experiences (including inside jokes and references).Use of collective pronouns create a sense of inclusivity. Emotive function can be used to foster a sense of emotional connection and unity.
purposes: Equality
language that is used to blur hierarchies and create a sense of shared participation and mutual respect, regardless of social status, role or power. Colloquial language and slang are equalising features and present a image of authenticity and relatability. As above, collective pronouns support. Inclusive interrogatives (questions) work to include participants. Nicknames and informal use of first names are markers of equality
Building rapport
a sense of friendliness, harmony and shared understanding is developed through informal authentic and relaxed interactions.Colloquialisms, slang and swearing support this in appropriate situational and cultural contexts by demonstrating trust and connection. In The wrong contexts, these features can cause offence.
Code Switching:
moving between languages in a single interaction. Common among speaker who know the same languages.
Phonological patterns
Alliteration: repetition of initial phonemes
Consonance: repetition of consonant sounds within words
Assonance:repetition of vowel sounds in words
Onomatopeoia: words created from the sounds they represent
Rhyme: repetition of similar phonemes at the end of words
Rhythm: repeated patterns of intonation across phrases, clauses or sentences.
Morphological patterns (word formation processes)
Abbreviation: umbrella term for processes of shortening a word including
Shortening: removal of syllables to shorten the word, i.e. influenza > flu
Contraction: combining two or more words, usually by deleting letters and adding an apostrophe, e.h. Cannot > can’t
Initialism: abbreviation formed by initials, each pronounced, e.g., By The Way > BTW
Acronym: abbreviation formed by initials, pronounceable as a new lexeme, e.g., NASA, laser
Affixation: addition of bound morphemes, including prefixes, suffixes and infixes, e.g., abso-bloody-lutely
Compounding: formation of a word by combining words or stems, e.g., greenhouse, viewpoint
Blending: combining words with phonemic overlap (overlap of syllable sounds), or eliminating phonemes, e.g, brunch, smog
Backformation: formation by removing actual or supposed affixation e.g., Editor > edit
Conversion of word class: changing clas of a word, such as using a noun to represent a verb, e.g., google, email
Morphological patterns Use in informal texts
- Used for efficiency, such as in texts
- Can be specific to community, therefore support in-group membership
Phonological patterns Use in informal texts
Add emphasis, or make texts memorable or engaging
Often used in advertising
Creative or entertaining
Syntactic patterns Use in informal texts
- Dramatic effect, humour, persuasion, emphasis, rhythm
- Demonstrate shared knowledge and close social distance
- Efficiency
Syntactic patterning
Listing: collection of three or more related elements, separated by commas or bullet points. E.g., I like reading, cats and eating cake; We invited the strippers, Hitler, and Stalin.
Parallelism: Two or more phrases, clauses or sentences that are structurally similar; repetition of syntactic structure. E.g., it takes ones to know one; I came, I saw, I conquered.
Antithesis: parallelism using contrasting elements, often antonyms, e.g., easy come, easy go;, the long and the short of it.
Semantic patterns Use in informal texts
- Humour, sarcasm, playfulness and creativity
- Cohesion and coherence
- Metaphor, simile and idiom are culturally specific
Semantic patterns
Figurative language: words or phrases used for non-literative meanings. Features of semantic patterning are forms of figurative language - use the most specific metalanguage you can.
Metaphor: a figure of speech in which one thing is said to be another
Simile: a figurative comparison using ‘like’ or ‘as
Personification: attributing human characteristics to non-human entities or inanimate objects.
Animation: bringing inanimate objects to life using motion and expression. E.g., The words leapt off the page.
Irony: a speaker of writer states one things, but means another, usually the opposite. Includes sarcasm, understatement or backhanded compliments.
Oxymoron: combining contradictory words or phrases for contrasting effect, evoking humour, irony or emphasis. E.h., bittersweet, virtual reality.
Hyperbole: exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally. E.g., I’ve told you a thousand times.
Lexical ambiguity: existance of two or more possible meanings of a single word
Puns: exploitation on lexical ambiguity for humorous or rhetorical effect. Relies on phonological, orthographical or semantic similarity
Coherence and cohesion
Cohesion: the use of grammatical and lexical techniques to link words together to create meaning; how the elements of a text form the whole
How a text holds together.
Coherence: the logical and meaningful organisation of a text; the arrangement of ideas, information and elements for successful communication.
Whether a text makes sense.
ECLAIR: Cohesion
E - Ellipsis, repetition and substitution
C - Collocation
L - Lexical choice
A - Adverbials and conjunctions
I - Information flow
R - Reference
Cohesion - E
E - Ellipsis, repetition and substitution
Ellipsis: the omission of words or phrases, when already known.
Information is assumed; avoids repetition.
Substitution: when alternative words, phrases or clauses are used in place of the original.
Avoids repetition.
Repetition: Use of the same word throughout a text; can include inflectional modifications.
can strengthen a point or argument; can unintentionally result from spontaneous speech.
Cohesion - C
C - Collocation
Collocation: refers to words that are commonly and predictably grouped together.
Uses informal collocations, idioms and fixed phrases.
Cohesion - L
L - Lexical choice
Lexical choice: The role of content words - nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
Synonymy
Antonymy
Hyponymy and hypernymy: hyponyms are words that are subtypes of larger categories called hypernyms
- Indicates shared vocabulary; uses slang and colloquial language.
Cohesion - A
A - Adverbials and conjunctions
Adverbials: words, phrases or clauses that provide information; often signpost time, place or manner (i.e. firstly, finally).
- Link relevant information, improves clarity and flow.
Cohesion - I
I - Information flow
Information flow: how speakers convey meaning by organising and sequencing language. Information flow can be manipulated to create emphasis, provide context, create contrast, maintain interest or increase readability.
Front focus: new information is placed in the initial part of a sentence.
Clefting: the modification of syntax to emphasise an element.
It-clefting: begins with “it” followed by the emphasised element
Wh-clefting: begin with what/who/how and end with the focused element
End focus: new and important information placed at the end of sentence or clause.
-Spontaneity of informal communication leads to flexible and variable flow
Cohesion - R
R - Reference
Reference: When an expression is used to refer to another word, phrase or clause (the referent).
Anaphoric reference: author or speaker refers to something already mentioned. Avoids repetition.
Cataphoric reference: referring to something that will be mentioned later. Builds anticipation or set up expectations.
Diectic reference: references within the context of the discourse; signal people, places, objects, time or situations in which a discourse is occurring.
Can be used as repairs.
Coherence - FLICC
F - Formatting
L - Logical ordering
I - Inference
C - Cohesion
C -Consistency and convention
Coherence - F
Formatting - Visual features of a text such as: font, spacing, alignment, headings, subheadings, lists, text colour, graphics, margins, white space.
Formatting gives prominence to important elements and can contribute to meaning.
- Informal texts include less conventional formatting - this includes emoticons, emojis and context-specific graphemes.
Coherence - L
Logical ordering: the arrangement of information in a text to maximise understanding.
Methods include ordering information chronologically, sequentially, or categorically.
- Flow of information is less structured in conversation; topic shifts and changes are more spontaneous.
Coherence - I
Inference: the meaning audiences make based on information provided and context factors; conclusions drawn using evidence and reasoning to ‘fill the gaps’ in a discourse.
- Rely on listener’s ability to infer based on shared knowledge, assumptions and context, such as shared slang, idiom and cultural references.
Coherence - C
Cohesion: textual cohesion - as above - contribute to clear communication
ECLAIR.
Coherence - C
Consistency: when similar concepts or entities are referred to in the same way throughout a text.
Includes consistent formatting, punctuation, font and spacing to create a visually unified text.
Conventions: established rules and expectations of how specific text types are structured, organised or presented.
Can be genre specific, or field- and domain-specific.
- Flexibility of consistency and convention indicates level of informality. Formal texts more rigidly adhere to consistency and convention.
Politeness strategies: Metalanguage
Politeness strategies are used to mitigate face-threatening effects and maintain rapport, harmony and politeness.
Positive politeness: Language strategies that reflect how another person is valued and positively regarded by others.
Face needs: the aspect of the listener that is being acknowledged through politeness strategies
Positive face: The desire to be seena s competent and liked by others. Need for social recognition, appreciation and inclusion
Negative face: the desire to be free from imposition and constraints on autonomy. A need for independence, privacy and freedom to act.
Face threatening acts: a communication that may pose a threat to an individual’s positive or negative face, leading to consequences such as embarrassment, loss of face, offence or conflict. May include:
Making requests, giving directives, complaining, disagreeing, interrupting, delivering bad news.
Positive politeness strategies
Emphasising similarities:
Highlighting shared characteristics, interests or values to create camaraderie.
Showing interest:
Expressing interest in opinion, experiences or emotions through questioning, listening attentively and responding empathetically
Using humour:
Making jokes, witty remarks and light hearted banter to create a relaxed and friendly atmosphere
Offering compliments:
Complimenting the audience’s appearance, achievements or abilities to boost their self-esteem
Using inclusive language:
Using personal inclusive pronouns (we, our, us) to create a sense of belonging and establish common ground.
Negative politeness strategies
Hedging
Using tentative language to avoid imposing on the listener’s autonomy.
Being indirect and ambiguous
Using indirect or vague language, such as hints or euphemisms. Listener to infer meaning
Using low modality verbs
Including modal auxiliaries in interrogatives to indicate possibility or uncertainty, to make requests less imposing.
Apologising
Make apologies to show deference and acknowledge potential imposition
Applying other mitigating strategies
Softening the impact or tone of a communication. Includes: polite expressions, tag questions and disclaimers, downplaying, using terms of address, respectful language to address listener or refer to position or status.
Discourse features of spoken language
Openings: how a speaker opens a conversation and sets the topic of exchange.
Closings: how a speaker indicates a conversation is finishing.
Adjacency pairs: sets of phrases that come one after the other. E.g. greetings and response, or question and answer. They can: build rapport, make participants feel included; meet face needs.
Minimal responses/backchannels: short utterances and cues that acknowledge the speaker without taking the floor. They maintain conversational flow, signal understanding or show engagement. Can include laughter and non-verbal cues.
Overlapping speech: multiple participants speak at the same time -cooperatively or uncooperatively. Cooperative overlaps in informal discourses indicate reduced social distance and can stem from excitement or meeting face needs. Uncooperative overlaps are disruptive.
Paralinguistic features include:
Paralinguistic features include:
Vocal effects, including whispers and laughter
Non-verbal communication, including gestures, facial expression, eye contact
Creakiness, breathiness
In-group membership and language features
In-group membership is a sense of belonging to any kind of social group, such as a family, community, classroom, friendship group or group defined by a shared interest (i.e., fans of a musician, sports club, etc)
In-group membership is supported by use of specific slang, nicknames, and in-jokes that are unique to a particular group. Slang within a community can be used to reinforce identity and belonging of the in-group, while excluding those not in-the-know, the ‘out-group’. Slang that becomes widely known is replaced within the in-group.
Emojis
they visual convey meaning while adding nuance to text based messages.
– situational + cultural context heavily shape the meaning of an emoji and they can often act as slang e/ meaning understood with a particular group
emoticons
they have been superseded by emojis and are often translated to the equivalent emoji on new devices
context specific graphemes
- number, hashtag
symbols used as shorthand for specific meanings depending on context. they can add to the efficiency of a written communication
&- represents and used for style and conciseness
@- in email addresses +social media handles
^- “see above” used in multiples for emphasis
*- footnotes emphasis censoring swearing or taboo language repairing errors in spelling
Promoting linguistic innovation
Linguistic innovation is the manipulation of language to create variations of language feature, giving rise to new words, phrases, pronunciations or meanings that reflect changing cultural and societal trends. Informal language promototes innovations through its spontaneous and casual nature. Successful and widespread use of linguistic innovation relies on it:
- Meeting communication needs
- Gaining support from influential individuals or communities
- is easy to understand
spoken conversation
the immediacy of dialogue fosters an environment where participants can be imaginative and creative with their use of language
- better express the purpose of their communication and their personal and social identity. linguistic innovation in speech can also be used to foster intimacy and solidarity. this is because there is an underlying shared understanding of how new language features contribute to a sense of unity among participants
instant messaging
because messaging applications can allow people to communicate over long distances in a style that imitates conversational speech, linguistic innovation can travel globally either through individual text chains or through large group messaging formats such as discord
social media
significant role in promoting linguistic innovation for informal texts. the casual style of communication on these platforms promotes linguistic playfulness and experimentation, slang, abbreviation and neologism, all of which foster creativity and the emergence of new language patterns. its a dynamic and ever changing landscape making it challenging to keep pace with the constant evolution of language
advertising
seeks to engage the audience and differentiate brands. ad involves creating memorable catchphrases or slogans, introducing unique brand names or coined terms, incorporating cultural ref and employing creative wordplay and humour. through this, linguistic innovation allows companies to convey persuasive message and create memorable experiences that resonate with consumers
Promoting social harmony
Promoting social harmony involves language that avoids conflict, is respectful of others’ feelings and promotes shared understanding. It can express agreement, appreciation or mutual interest with intent to foster unity and cooperation.
In the face of disagreement, where discussion can get heated, this can be achieved through use of nicknames to maintain friendliness, and use of politeness strategies.
Negotiating social taboos
Social taboos are topics sensitive or controversial, or avoided in social contexts. Contextual factors such as subject matter, relationship between participants, age, culture and location influence how when these topics are broached.
In order to minimise discomfort or offence while maintaining respect and understanding, politeness strategies such s indirect language and hedging, as well as shared slang are used. Others may make light of taboo topics through humour, slang or linguistic innovation. This acknowledges shared understanding and brings participants closer together.
Strategies for topic management
Initiation: introducing a new topic; can be explicit or implicit
Development: Progression or elaboration of topic.
Shift: move from one topic to another with coherent link
Change: Transition from one topic to another
Loop: revisiting or returning to a previously discussed topic
Termination: Closure of a topic within a conversation. End point of conversation.
